A large-scale quantum computer is one of the main aims for researchers and industry in quantum technology at the moment. The interest in quantum computer development stems from the expectation that it could be used to solve problems that classical supercomputers are not able to. However, to build such useful quantum computers, a significant increase in the number of qubits is required compared to today’s systems. This scale-up requires development in many parts of the quantum computer, including the information transfer between room temperature control electronics and qubits in cryogenic temperature. Currently, information is transferred via metallic coaxial cables that inevitably also introduce a significant heat load to the cryostat. As the cooling power of cryostats is limited, alternatives need to be explored. In this thesis, we focus on optical control of superconducting quantum technology. The idea is to transfer information between room and cryogenic temperature in optical form, via optical fibers that have negligible heat load. Then, using an optical-to-electrical converter (OEC), the optical signal can be converted to electrical form and used to drive superconducting components. Similarly, the output signal can be transformed to optical form and transmitted back to room temperature optically. In this thesis, we study this topic by two distinct parts: disordered superconducting thin films and optical control of Josephson junction arrays. Disordered superconducting thin films are promising materials, e.g., for superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) which are one alternative of OECs. Therefore, in this thesis, we studied various disordered films. We explored the effects of ion irradiation on common superconducting materials (Al, Nb, NbN, TiN and MoSi) and demonstrated that ion irradiation increases disorder, i.e., increases normal-state sheet resistance. In addition, it can alter the critical temperature. Furthermore, for MoSi films we noticed that ion irradiation can help mix the materials. In addition, we studied atomic layer deposition (ALD) that is another fabrication method for disordered superconductors. We demonstrated superconductivity in MoC and NbCN films that were fabricated by novel thermal ALD processes. On the other hand, the motivation to study optical control of Josephson junction arrays is that when driven with arbitrary pulse patterns, they act as Josephson arbitrary waveform synthesizers (JAWS) that produce accurate, quantized voltage waveforms in the cryogenic temperature. In this thesis, we demonstrated driving of low critical current Josephson junction arrays with optical pulses that were converted to electrical form using commercial photodiodes. We developed a double-pulse method to study the dynamics of the system and compared the results to simulations. When we varied the time difference between pulses, the results followed expectations and simulations. We were able to drive the junction arrays to multiple Shapiro steps reliably. As a highlight, we demonstrated that the maximum drive frequency of our JAWS setup is significantly higher compared to typical methods that use electrical pulse pattern generators. Therefore, the work presented in this thesis can establish the groundwork for using optical pulses and fast Josephson junction arrays to enable energy-efficient and scalable method to drive superconducting components, such as qubits, that decreases the heat load and aids in the required scale-up for large-scale quantum computing.
A large-scale quantum computer is one of the main aims for researchers and industry in quantum technology at the moment. The interest in quantum computer development stems from the expectation that it could be used to solve problems that classical supercomputers are not able to. However, to build such useful quantum computers, a significant increase in the number of qubits is required compared to today’s systems. This scale-up requires development in many parts of the quantum computer, including the information transfer between room temperature control electronics and qubits in cryogenic temperature. Currently, information is transferred via metallic coaxial cables that inevitably also introduce a significant heat load to the cryostat. As the cooling power of cryostats is limited, alternatives need to be explored. In this thesis, we focus on optical control of superconducting quantum technology. The idea is to transfer information between room and cryogenic temperature in optical form, via optical fibers that have negligible heat load. Then, using an optical-to-electrical converter (OEC), the optical signal can be converted to electrical form and used to drive superconducting components. Similarly, the output signal can be transformed to optical form and transmitted back to room temperature optically. In this thesis, we study this topic by two distinct parts: disordered superconducting thin films and optical control of Josephson junction arrays. Disordered superconducting thin films are promising materials, e.g., for superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) which are one alternative of OECs. Therefore, in this thesis, we studied various disordered films. We explored the effects of ion irradiation on common superconducting materials (Al, Nb, NbN, TiN and MoSi) and demonstrated that ion irradiation increases disorder, i.e., increases normal-state sheet resistance. In addition, it can alter the critical temperature. Furthermore, for MoSi films we noticed that ion irradiation can help mix the materials. In addition, we studied atomic layer deposition (ALD) that is another fabrication method for disordered superconductors. We demonstrated superconductivity in MoC and NbCN films that were fabricated by novel thermal ALD processes. On the other hand, the motivation to study optical control of Josephson junction arrays is that when driven with arbitrary pulse patterns, they act as Josephson arbitrary waveform synthesizers (JAWS) that produce accurate, quantized voltage waveforms in the cryogenic temperature. In this thesis, we demonstrated driving of low critical current Josephson junction arrays with optical pulses that were converted to electrical form using commercial photodiodes. We developed a double-pulse method to study the dynamics of the system and compared the results to simulations. When we varied the time difference between pulses, the results followed expectations and simulations. We were able to drive the junction arrays to multiple Shapiro steps reliably. As a highlight, we demonstrated that the maximum drive frequency of our JAWS setup is significantly higher compared to typical methods that use electrical pulse pattern generators. Therefore, the work presented in this thesis can establish the groundwork for using optical pulses and fast Josephson junction arrays to enable energy-efficient and scalable method to drive superconducting components, such as qubits, that decreases the heat load and aids in the required scale-up for large-scale quantum computing.
Quantum computing is a rapidly evolving field with potential for solving complex problems beyond the reach of classical computers. Scalability in qubit design and signal processing architecture within cryostats is necessary for taking advantage of quantum computing's potential. Current state of the art qubit technology requires both a feed and readout line for each qubit within a quantum processor, with these lines generally being metallic coaxial cables. For stainless steel cables this represents a significant heat load into the cryostat. An alternative approach involves using optical fibers for signal transmission, as optical fibers have a thermal conductivity two orders of magnitude lower than stainless steel coaxial cables. The proposed method for optical signal transmission relies on electro-optic modulation, where a voltage applied to an electro-optic material changes its refractive index, allowing for a controllable phase change to be applied to any light passing through the material. This concept can be combined with on-chip photonic waveguide technology to build fiber-coupled phase modulators as well as intensity modulators using on chip interferometers. The proposed architecture uses a room temperature intensity modulator to encode microwave signals onto a laser signal, which is recovered at cryogenic temperatures using a photodiode and used as input for a device under test. The output of the test device is encoded onto light using a phase modulator and recovered at room temperature through interferometry. Proof-of-concept experiments have been carried out at room temperature, including noise characterization and preliminary tests of components at cryogenic temperatures.
Low-temperature refrigerators cool systems down to cryogenic temperatures near absolute zero, where thermal noise and decoherence are suppressed. This allows quantum phases, such as superconductivity, to emerge in certain materials and enables the harnessing of individual quantum states for scientific and high-performance applications. However, the refrigerators used for these purposes are large and rely on cryoliquids, such as scarce and expensive 3He, which can be a limiting factor depending on the technological application. To enable more scalable, costeffective cryogenic platforms, new refrigeration technologies must be developed. To this end, chip-scale coolers based on superconducting tunnel junctions have been envisioned to provide a fully solid-state alternative. Proof-of-principle operation of these coolers has been demonstrated at temperatures below 1.5 K, but to link them with commercially available 4He pulse tube cryocoolers, stage operating above 2.0 K is required. Additionally, thermally isolating and electrically conducting methods are needed to cascade coolers operating at different temperature ranges. In this thesis, the fundamental components of a multi-stage chip-scale cooler operating at temperatures compatible with 4He pulse tube cryocoolers are developed. A superconducting flipchip assembly fabricated with In-bumps was characterized in the sub-kelvin temperature range, and the inter-chip thermal resistance was found to be suitable for chip-scale cooling applications. A through-chip signal routing method utilizing ALD TiN-based TSVs was developed, and the demonstrated critical temperature of 2.0 K enables dissipationless DC transport for multi-chip assemblies, such as cascaded coolers. Additionally, ALD MoCx was shown to exhibit a superconducting transition temperature up to 4.4 K and high conformality, showing promise as a TSV-compatible material. The key achievement of electronic cooling of Al thin film from a bath temperature of 2.4 K down to 1.6 K was demonstrated using Nb-based superconducting tunnel junctions, probed by an onchip junction thermometer. Thermal model calculations highlighted the emergence of superconductivity in the Al beneath the cooler junctions, persisting up to a bath temperature of 2.4 K: one kelvin higher than the nominal critical temperature of the Al thin film. The single-stage cooler operating above 2.0 K enables solid-state on-chip cooling from 4He pulse-tube compatible temperature without the use of magnetic fields. Additionally, Al- and V-based tunnel junctions were fabricated at the wafer scale using degenerately doped Si as the normal electrode. The junctions exhibited suitable low-temperature electrical characteristics for cooling applications. From superconducting interconnects to tunnel-junction components supporting high cooling power density above 1 K, the achievements presented in this thesis enable modular design of chip-scale cascade coolers. This technology is envisioned to support the scaling of several superconducting quantum devices from proof-of-principle to multi-component systems beyond experimental lab environments.
The performance and coherence of superconducting quantum systems are fundamentally tied to the quality of the materials from which they are built. In superconducting transmon qubits, many loss mechanisms and sources of decoherence originate from material imperfections or unwanted oxide formation. Likewise, semiconductor–superconductor hybrid systems depend on high-quality interfaces to ensure strong coupling between electronic states in the two materials. In such hybrid devices, the accessible operating regime is often dictated by the intrinsic material properties of either the semiconductor or the superconductor. Advancing quantum device performance therefore requires exploring new material systems and optimizing their physical characteristics. In this thesis, we present the development of several superconducting material platforms for quantum technologies, including superconducting qubits, single-photon detectors, and semiconductor superconductor hybrid devices. We focus on the growth and characterization of superconducting films and heterostructures, and we establish clear connections between their material properties and the resulting device performance. First, we will present a novel semiconductor-superconductor hybrid material based on in-situ deposited epitaxial layers of Nb and Al on a shallow InAs quantum well. In this structure, the Al interlayer provides an epitaxial connection between an in-situ magnetron sputtered Nb or NbTi thin film and a shallow InAs two dimensional electron gas. This metal-to-metal epitaxy is achieved by optimization of the material stack and results in an induced superconducting gap of approximately 1 meV, determined from transport measurements of superconductor semiconductor Josephson junctions. This induced gap is approximately five times larger than the values reported for Al-based hybrid materials and indicates the formation of highly-transparent interfaces that are required in high-quality hybrid material platforms. Then, we discuss a different approach in the next chapter where we develop a hybrid material based on a molecular beam epitaxy grown InAsSb surface quantum well with an in-situ deposited Nb layer directly on top of the quantum well. Relative to conventional Al-InAs based systems, the InAsSb surface quantum well offers a lower effective mass and stronger spin-orbit interaction, while the Nb layer has a higher critical temperature and a larger critical magnetic field. The in-situ deposition of the Nb layer directly on top of the quantum well results in a high-quality interface that enables strong coupling to the InAsSb quantum well. Transport measurements on Josephson junctions reveal an induced superconducting gap of 1.3 meV and a critical current density of 3.75 × 10³A/cm². Furthermore, a planar asymmetric SQUID is realized, exhibiting gate-tunable superimposed oscillations originating from both the individual Josephson junction and the full SQUID loop. The large induced superconducting gap combined with strong spin-orbit interaction position this material as an attractive platform for experiments exploring gate-tunable superconductivity and topological superconducting devices. In the next chapter, we will focus on establishing a link between Nb film crystal properties and their performance in superconducting circuits. In this study, we investigate the microwave properties of niobium resonators with different crystalline properties and related surface topographies. We analyze a series of magnetron sputtered films in which the Nb crystal orientation and surface topography are changed by varying the substrate temperatures between room temperature and 975 K. The lowest-loss resonators that we measure have quality factors of over 10⁶ at single-photon powers, among the best ever recorded using the Nb on sapphire platform. We observe the highest quality factors in films grown at an intermediate temperature regime of the growth series (550 K) where the films display both preferential ordering of the crystal domains and low surface roughness. Furthermore, we analyze the temperature-dependent behavior of our resonators to learn about how the quasi-particle density in the Nb film is affected by the niobium crystal structure and the presence of grain boundaries. Then, we explore yet a different material platform by attempting to realize onchip NbTiN single photon detectors on LiNbO₃, an emerging photonic platform with high potential for scalable quantum information processing. We use DC reactive magnetron sputtering to grow high-quality NbTiN thin films and investigate the impact of substrate temperature during NbTiN growth. We achieve four nm thick superconducting films with a critical temperature (𝑇𝑐) of 12.3 K grown at a substrate temperature of 825 K. We demonstrate that the increased substrate temperature reduces the oxygen concentration in our films and improves the overall stoichiometry. In addition, we integrate these films with the LiNbO3 platform and investigate the obtained interface quality. Finally, we fabricate superconducting nanowire single photon detectors from the NbTiN film on LiNbO₃ and characterize the detector performance. Lastly, we report a gate-tunable Josephson diode effect in hybrid nanowire junctions consisting of a spin-orbit-coupled semiconductor core coated with epitaxial ferromagnetic insulator and superconductor shells. The wires display a hysteretic superconducting window as a function of axial magnetic field. In the superconducting regime, the devices exhibit nonreciprocal current transport, with the diode efficiency showing a strong dependence on back-gate voltage. The effect persists in a remanent magnetization state following a controlled demagnetization procedure, establishing zero-field operation. The combination of results presented in this thesis stress the importance of a material-focused approach in advancing the performance of quantum hardware. The novel hybrid material platforms developed in this thesis expand the operating regime of devices, which could enable future experiments involving gate-tunable superconductivity or topological properties. Similarly, we demonstrate that optimizing superconductor crystal structure benefits quantum devices, such as single-photon detectors and superconducting resonators.
This PhD Thesis is focused on the realization of superconducting quantum devices based on overdamped Nb/Al-AlOx/Nb SNIS (Superconductor - Normal metal - Insulator - Superconductor) tunneling Josephson junctions, interesting for several application fields (voltage metrology, digital electronics, radiation sensors, nanoSQUID, etc.). The challenges faced by quantum electronics and metrology are directing the new generations of devices towards smaller dimensions and higher levels of integration. Taking into account this requirement, the fabrication of SNIS-based devices has been addressed on downscaling the junction dimensions form the micro to the nanoscale. In particular, the effective area of junctions has been reduced exploiting three different lithographic techniques: the optical lithography to realize SNISs for a micrometer resolution, the Electron Beam Lithography (EBL) at the subµm and, finally, the Focused Ion Beam (FIB) sculpting method to achieve nanometer sizes. Specifically, prototypes have been realized exploiting the thin film technology, to guarantee a good control of electrical parameters of junctions, a higher reproducibility of their current-voltage I-V characteristics, and an accurate dimension control. Reliable and simpler fabrication processes have been implemented and validated, and the device downscaling was pursued without affecting the fundamental properties of SNIS junctions such as the non hysteretic I-V response and the skill on generating quantised voltage steps under radiofrequency irradiation. This work has thereby led to the definition and validation of a new generation of devices and processes down to the nanometer scale, and these approaches represent precious experiences of nanofabrication valuable for new research activities and projects
Superconducting circuits are important technological tools that have found various applications, notably hypothetical future superconducting quantum computers. Scaling such systems further is, however, proving challenging because of thermal heat load and space constraints in cryostats. One way of improving the scalability of such systems would be to resort to optical fibers for controlling the circuits in cryostats, as well as mediating long-distance interaction between them while preserving quantum coherence. Such a strategy relies on building a coherent interface between GHz frequencies and optical frequencies. This interface, referred to as "microwave-optical transducer", would need to exhibit high photon conversion efficiencies and very low added noise, ideally less than a quantum, in a cryogenic environment. Since the prospects of weaving networks of optically connected superconducting quantum processors have now attracted the attention of the scientific community for more than a decade, very efficient transducers have already been proposed and realized. However, despite their impressive performances against selected metrics, often equivalent to optimizing the on-chip conversion efficiency alone, none of the approaches pursued so far really solved the qubit interconnection problems in ways that could be applied to large-scale systems in the near future. The aim of this thesis was to develop transduction approaches that would ultimately enable optical driving of superconducting circuits and quantum state transfer between microwave and optical frequencies, while at the same time ensuring good scalability, both in terms of wafer manufacturability and integration in cryogenic environments. Integrated photonic circuits based on silicon nitride appeared as a promising platform, as silicon nitride is a CMOS-certified material, has a transparency window compatible with optical fibers and lacks two photon absorption. Realizing the coupling between microwave and optical frequencies in a way similar to what is done in optomechanics is desirable, because the field of optomechanics has seen the establishement of techniques that enable control of the low frequency degree of freedom at the quantum mechanical level, including ground state cooling, control of the susceptibility by dynamical backaction, quantum state transfer and entanglement. The heterogeneous integration of nonlinear crystalline thin films, such as lithium niobate and lithium tantalate, onto silicon nitride photonic circuitry endows it with an electro-optic activity that emulates the optomechanical interaction, while offering an inherent access to the microwave degree of freedom. However, material nonlinearities, including photorefraction, charge screening, and hysteresis, introduce complications that motivate exploring alternative approaches. Here, alongside an electro-optic implementation, a transducer that leverages the interaction of bulk acoustic resonances excited by micro-electromechanical systems with whispering-gallery-like modes of microresonators is presented. Coherent transduction between microwave and optical fields is demonstrated, and optomechanical dynamical backaction is observed. The transducers fast bandwidth, compatibility with multiplexing and ability to down-convert microwaves suggest interesting prospects, particularly upon further improvements of the optomechanical coupling.
In recent years, standard CMOS microprocessors have approached their maximum power dissipation per unit area, effectively placing a limit on computational power. This highlights the urgent need to explore alternative technologies. One promising avenue is the use of superconductors, which demonstrate zero resistivity below a critical temperature. However, circuits based on superconductors necessitate the use of cryostats to maintain low temperatures, presenting challenges in data transfer with the room temperature environment. While coaxial cables are often employed for this purpose, they suffer from limited data transfer rates and contribute significantly to heat load. On the contrary, photonics integrated circuits (PICs) coupled with optical fibers present a viable solution. They enable scalable, cost-effective, and power-efficient optical interconnections capable of supporting high data transfer rates while minimizing heat transfer. In this presentation, We will discuss the latest advancements in cryogenic PICs, focusing on their application in interfacing with cryogenic computing systems such as single-flux-quantum logic circuits and superconducting qubits.