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Pilot comparison on the measurement of detection efficiency of InGaAs/InP single-photon detectors (Conference Presentation)

Marco López

Published May 29, 2018• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

InGaAs/InP single-photon detectors are today the most frequently used detectors for fibre-based Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) [1,2]. The performance of the QKD-systems greatly depends on the optical properties of its detector, such as quantum efficiency, dead time, dark counts, gating rate, etc., which need to be metrologically characterized to fully grantee the QKD network security. Therefore, several European National Metrological Institutes (NMIs) are putting today great efforts in developing novel measurement methods and calibration facilities, which allow to perform the traceable characterisation of single-photon detectors by using reference standards [3, 4]. From the metrological, and specifically radiometric, point of view, the detection efficiency of the single-photon detector is the main parameter that needs to be traceable to the primary standard for optical power (i.e. the cryogenic radiometer), which is maintained by most of the NMIs. Recently, four European NMIs have carried out a pilot comparison on the detection efficiency of a free-running InGaAs/InP single-photon detector, which main purpose has been to provide a snapshot of the measurement capabilities of the four European NMIs in the field of photon counting detection. The comparison was carried out in the framework of the EMPIR project 14IND05 “Optical metrology for quantum-enhanced secure telecommunication (MIQC2)” at the telecom wavelength of 1550 nm by using different reference standards with independently traceability chains. The results of this comparison, including the different experimental setups, the measurement methods, the traceability chain and the uncertainty evaluation of each participant, will be presented in this conference. References: [1] Akihisa Tomita, et al., “High speed quantum key distribution system”, Optical Fiber Technology, 16, Issue 1, 55-62 (2010). [2] Damien Stucki, et al., “Photon counting for quantum key distribution with peltier cooled InGaAs/InP APDs”, Journal of Modern Optics, 48, Issue 13, 1967-1981 (2001). [3] M. López, et al, “Detection efficiency calibration of single-photon silicon avalanche photodiodes traceable using double attenuator technique, Journal of Modern Optics 62, S21 – S27, 2015. [4] G. Porrovecchio, et al., “Comparison at the sub-100 fW optical power level of calibrating a single-photon detector using a high-sensitive, low-noise silicon photodiode and the double attenuator technique”, Metrologia 53, 1115-1122 (2016).

DOI
10.1117/12.2316332

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InGaAs/InP single-photon detectors are today the most frequently used detectors for fibre-based Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) [1,2]. The performance of the QKD-systems greatly depends on the optical properties of its detector, such as quantum efficiency, dead time, dark counts, gating rate, etc., which need to be metrologically characterized to fully grantee the QKD network security. Therefore, several European National Metrological Institutes (NMIs) are putting today great efforts in developing novel measurement methods and calibration facilities, which allow to perform the traceable characterisation of single-photon detectors by using reference standards [3, 4]. From the metrological, and specifically radiometric, point of view, the detection efficiency of the single-photon detector is the main parameter that needs to be traceable to the primary standard for optical power (i.e. the cryogenic radiometer), which is maintained by most of the NMIs. Recently, four European NMIs have carried out a pilot comparison on the detection efficiency of a free-running InGaAs/InP single-photon detector, which main purpose has been to provide a snapshot of the measurement capabilities of the four European NMIs in the field of photon counting detection. The comparison was carried out in the framework of the EMPIR project 14IND05 “Optical metrology for quantum-enhanced secure telecommunication (MIQC2)” at the telecom wavelength of 1550 nm by using different reference standards with independently traceability chains. The results of this comparison, including the different experimental setups, the measurement methods, the traceability chain and the uncertainty evaluation of each participant, will be presented in this conference. References: [1] Akihisa Tomita, et al., “High speed quantum key distribution system”, Optical Fiber Technology, 16, Issue 1, 55-62 (2010). [2] Damien Stucki, et al., “Photon counting for quantum key distribution with peltier cooled InGaAs/InP APDs”, Journal of Modern Optics, 48, Issue 13, 1967-1981 (2001). [3] M. López, et al, “Detection efficiency calibration of single-photon silicon avalanche photodiodes traceable using double attenuator technique, Journal of Modern Optics 62, S21 – S27, 2015. [4] G. Porrovecchio, et al., “Comparison at the sub-100 fW optical power level of calibrating a single-photon detector using a high-sensitive, low-noise silicon photodiode and the double attenuator technique”, Metrologia 53, 1115-1122 (2016).
Abstract The challenges faced in a comparison of measuring the detection efficiency of free-running InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche detectors (InGaAs/InP SPAD) were studied by four European National Metrology Institutes (NMIs) meeting at a single laboratory. The main purpose of this study is to develop a trustable measurement technique and to provide a snapshot of the methods used by the four NMIs for measuring such photon-counting detectors at telecom wavelengths in order to establish proper procedures for characterising such devices. The detection efficiency measurements were performed using different experimental setups and reference standards with independent traceability chains at the wavelength of 1550 nm. A dedicated model to correct the dead time and dark count effects on the SPAD’s free-running counting process was developed, allowing the correct value of the photon rate impinging on the detector to be recovered from simple ratemeter measurements. The detection efficiency was measured for mean photon number per pulse between 0.01 and 2.4, corresponding to photon rates between approximately 1100 photon/s and 193,000 photon/s, respectively. We found that the measured values reported by the participants are all consistent within the stated uncertainties, proving the consistency of the measurement approach developed.
We provide a direct comparison between the InGaAs avalanche photodiode (APD) and the NbN superconducting single photon detector (SSPD) for applications in fiber-based quantum cryptography. The quantum efficiency and dark count rate were measured for each detector, and used to calculate the quantum bit error rate (QBER) and shared key rate for a QKD link. The results indicate that, despite low quantum efficiency, the speed of the SSPD makes it a superior detector for quantum information applications. Finally, we present results of an initial integration of an SSPD into a receiver node of the DARPA quantum network to perform quantum key distribution. Encoding quantum information on single photons has enabled the realization of a number of unique communication schemes such as the implementation of the BB84 protocol for quantum key distribution 1 and quantum dense coding. 2 Furthermore, the implementation of these schemes using photons at telecommunication wavelengths has permitted their extension to fiber optic networks, 3,4 drastically increasing the practicality of quantum information processing. To date, the state of the art in commercially available single photon detection at telecommunication wavelengths (1550 nm) has been the thermo-electrically cooled InGaAs avalanche photodiode (APD). The cooled InGaAs APD is generally operated at T = -60°C in the reverse-biased Geiger mode. Though these detectors have been successfully implemented in operating QKD links in optical fiber, the InGaAs APD suffers from afterpulsing effects that limit the key exchange rates. New SPD (single photon detector) technologies based on superconducting materials are emerging that hold tremendous promise for drastically increasing the photon counting rate and eliminating dark noise.57 The SSPD consists of a NbN thin film (t ∼ 5 nm) patterned into a narrow (w ∼ 100 nm) microstrip meander that is ∼ 500μm in length. The detector is cooled to T < 4K in a closed cycle refrigeration unit and a bias current I b is supplied to the device just below the superconducting critical current (I c ). When a photon is incident upon the microstrip superconductivity is broken in the region local to photon absorption and a normal state region is formed in the device. The current passing through the device causes a measurable voltage pulse in the detector that can be amplified and shaped to act as an input for traditional logic circuitry. Due to the unique electronic bandstructure in a superconducting material the intrinsic response time of the device is on the order of picoseconds, so that the repetition rate may be increased above 1 GHz 8 without being susceptible to afterpulsing effects that plague the InGaAs APD. 9 To make a direct comparison between the InGaAs APD and the SSPD both were placed in a SPD characterization testbed to measure quantum efficiency and dark count rate at a variety of bias conditions. The QBER for a QKD link is calculated from the measured parameters and then compared to requirements for a provably secure QKD link. Following detector characterization, one of the nodes of the DARPA Quantum Network operated by BBN Technologies 3 utilized an SSPD in the receiver to transmit key material. The demonstration provides an in situ comparison between the InGaAs APD, normally operated in the BBN link, and the SSPD.
The application of quantum key distribution (QKD) has raised particular demands for single-photon detectors. One of the most promising candidates at the low-loss optical fibre communications windows is the planar geometry InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche diode. These detectors have been modelled, fabricated and characterised at 1.55 µm wavelength. Their performance in terms of single-photon detection efficiency, dark count rate, timing jitter and afterpulsing behaviour are reported and compared with the best commercially available, linear multiplication avalanche photodiodes operated in Geiger-mode. Their use in the application of QKD is discussed.
In our experiment, two InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiodes (APD) were used in the quantum key distribution (QKD) system for single-photon detection at telecom communication wavelength (1310/1550 nm). By using properly designed passive-quenching circuit, the photo-detection efficiency of the APD could reach 10% at 1550 nm. In order to decrease the dark count rate efficiently, we designed a coincident counting circuits for single-photon detection. Before the APD signals were sent to the signal processing circuit, the avalanche signals were amplified and shaped into the TTL pulses. In order to obtain an accurate and efficient data acquisition and to transfer synchronically several signals such as the TTL signals and pulses from Random generators, we designed a signal processing circuit with the parallel port whose speed limitation is about 100Kb/s. In our experiments of single-photon interference and quantum cryptography, the electronic designs presented us satisfactory performance and results. To achieve much higher speed for the data acquisition, we also employed the Universal Serial Bus System (USB2.0) to interface our single-photon avalanche detectors and random generators used in our QKD system, which was believed to improve the performance of QKD such as the key distribution speed.
A system for calibrating single photon detector efficiency that is traceable to the SI through a state-of-the-art classical optical fibre radiometer has been developed and is in the process of being vetted as a calibration service at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). The method of calibration is direct substitution to power meters relative to NIST's optical fibre cryogenic primary standard and builds on the existing measurement infrastructure for the calibration of optical fibre power meters. Recent improvements to the optical fibre cryogenic radiometer make it more robust and deployable. The traceability of the single photon detector calibration service under development to these classical measurements is discussed, along with a description of the technique used in this calibration service to calibrate the detection efficiency of single photon detectors. Finally, we discuss work on the development of these technologies so that in the future they may be deployable to the point-of- use.
The implementation and commercialization of quantum cryptography technologies have to face some challenges related to the development of single-photon detectors operating at 1550 nm. The main requirements are: i) high detection efficiency; ii) low noise; iii) high count rate; iv) low timing jitter. Different technologies are currently available for single-photon detection at 1550 nm, but semiconductor devices (like Single-Photon Avalanche Diode, SPAD) offer a photon detection efficiency that is inherently higher than any photocathode employed in vacuum tube detectors. Additionally InGaAs/InP SPADs can detect single photons at 1550 nm with low noise when moderately cooled by means of thermo-electric coolers. Consequently, InGaAs/InP SPAD can be the enabling technology of practical quantum key distribution (QKD) systems, provided that the maximum count rate is increased above 1 Mcps. The main limit is the afterpulsing effect that usually sets too long (< 10 μs) a hold-off time after each avalanche ignition. We present the developments achieved in InGaAs/InP SPAD device design, fabrication technology and front-end electronics, aimed at decreasing the afterpulsing effect, while not impairing photon detection efficiency and timing jitter. The new InGaAs/InP SPADs provide count rates higher than 1 Mcps and temporal response with 60 ps Full-Width at Half Maximum and very short (30 ps time constant) tail. The front-end electronics includes a wide-band pulse generator able to gate the SPAD up to 133 MHz repetition rate. Eventually, a fast avalanche-quenching scheme minimizes quenching time to less than 1 ns, thus effectively reducing afterpulsing by decreasing the total charge flowing through the junction.