Besides the proof of a modified Luttinger–Ward–Klein variational principle and a related self-consistency idea, there is not much new in principle in this paper. L. Hedin, Phys. Rev . 139, A796–823 (1965) Summary In this chapter a set of equations is formulated that determine the self-energy and the one-body Green's function in terms of the screened Coulomb interaction between classical charges. The equations contain a correction to the classical picture in terms of a vertex function. The physical meaning of the various contributions is discussed. The simplest approximation for the vertex yields the random phase approximation for the polarizability and the GW approximation for the self-energy. Various aspects of the GWA are analyzed, with a focus on the physics that is added beyond Hartree– Fock. A brief summary of model cases illustrates the domain of validity and the limits of the GWA. In this chapter we elaborate in more detail on the question of how to calculate the onebody Green's function from a Dyson equation with a self-energy kernel. In the previous chapter a scheme was introduced to design approximations to the self-energy. However, the question of where to stop, which pieces of physics to include and which to neglect, is not yet settled. Of course, there is no unique answer, besides the exact solution, but different strategies can be more or less advantageous in practice. In a system with a few electrons, for example, different aspects will be important than in a system with many electrons. Here we are mostly interested in solids, or more generally in extended systems. In such systems, screening plays an essential role: the interaction between two charges is strongly modified, in general reduced, by the rearrangement of all the other charges. It is therefore most convenient to reformulate the equations such that screening appears explicitly. Some steps in this direction can be found in earlier chapters, in particular in Sec. 8.3, the formulation of the Ψ [ G , W ]-functional of the screened interaction W instead of the Ф[ G , v c ]-functional of the bare v c . In Sec. 10.5 the screened interaction approximation for the self-energy is derived, with the self-energy as a product of the one-body Green's function and the screened interaction W .
Besides the proof of a modified Luttinger–Ward–Klein variational principle and a related self-consistency idea, there is not much new in principle in this paper. L. Hedin, Phys. Rev . 139, A796–823 (1965) Summary In this chapter a set of equations is formulated that determine the self-energy and the one-body Green's function in terms of the screened Coulomb interaction between classical charges. The equations contain a correction to the classical picture in terms of a vertex function. The physical meaning of the various contributions is discussed. The simplest approximation for the vertex yields the random phase approximation for the polarizability and the GW approximation for the self-energy. Various aspects of the GWA are analyzed, with a focus on the physics that is added beyond Hartree– Fock. A brief summary of model cases illustrates the domain of validity and the limits of the GWA. In this chapter we elaborate in more detail on the question of how to calculate the onebody Green's function from a Dyson equation with a self-energy kernel. In the previous chapter a scheme was introduced to design approximations to the self-energy. However, the question of where to stop, which pieces of physics to include and which to neglect, is not yet settled. Of course, there is no unique answer, besides the exact solution, but different strategies can be more or less advantageous in practice. In a system with a few electrons, for example, different aspects will be important than in a system with many electrons. Here we are mostly interested in solids, or more generally in extended systems. In such systems, screening plays an essential role: the interaction between two charges is strongly modified, in general reduced, by the rearrangement of all the other charges. It is therefore most convenient to reformulate the equations such that screening appears explicitly. Some steps in this direction can be found in earlier chapters, in particular in Sec. 8.3, the formulation of the Ψ [ G , W ]-functional of the screened interaction W instead of the Ф[ G , v c ]-functional of the bare v c . In Sec. 10.5 the screened interaction approximation for the self-energy is derived, with the self-energy as a product of the one-body Green's function and the screened interaction W .
In this chapter, shortcomings of the GW approximation are analyzed, and different ways are proposed to go beyond. The approaches fall into three broad classes: first, one can iterate Hedin's equations that link the self-energy, the polarizability, the screened Coulomb interaction, and the vertex function with the Dyson equation for the one-body Green's function. Second, one can use other Dyson equations like in the T-matrix approach, and third, one can make an ansatz for the one-body Green's function inspired by physical considerations or insight from models, in particular the idea of electron–boson coupling that leads to the cumulant expansion. Applications are given for illustration. Some more ideas and links to subsequent chapters provide an outlook. The GW approximation is a widely used approach in computational electronic structure. However, the previous chapters show some severe limitations. One example is systems with low-energy excitations, as illustrated by the Hubbard dimer in the dissociation limit, where bonding and antibonding orbitals become degenerate. This can be seen in Sec. 11.7. Another example is satellite series, for example in the photoemission spectrum of silicon in Sec. 13.1. Moreover, even in a situation where the approximation is well justified, it induces some error, though maybe small, and one eventually wants to do better. The full self-energy functional is in principle known: it is the Luttinger–Ward sum of skeleton diagrams derived from Eq. (11.35). However, this is an infinite sum, and no closed form of the result is known. Hence, the task is not to invent new diagrams: it is to make a choice of diagrams or combinations of diagrams, which are evaluated fully or in an approximate way. This is the framework of the present chapter. In some cases we will add diagrams to the GWA ones, which gives rise to vertex corrections ; in other cases some of the GWA diagrams are neglected while different ones are taken into account. An example is the T-matrix approximation, which sums ladder diagrams instead of bubbles. In general one tries to combine this with the GWA, especially in extended systems where screening is important. Therefore the GWA plays a prominent role, and the whole chapter is called beyond GW . The chapter contains advanced material, that is in part exploratory and refers to current research. It is intended to make links to communities outside the GW world, and to other chapters.
The well-known and well-used Density Functional Theory (DFT) is a variational theory for the ground-state. There are no guarantees that it delivers good results for excited state properties such as quasiparticle energies or wave function. All that is guaranteed is that the total energy is exact, the chemical potential is correct, and that the eective electronic states (Kohn-Sham states) generate the right electron density at the variational minimum. Luttinger-Ward approaches to electronic structure are attractive as beyond-DFT schemes since, in principle, they oer a variational functional of the one-electron Green’s function that yields both the correct total energy and all one-particle properties at the variational extremum. However, compared to DFT, these methods face a number of additional challenges beyond the familiar problem of choosing an exchange-correlation functional: (a) they have a much greater computational cost compared to DFT, (b) one must choose some set of trial Green’s functions, and (c) one must locate an extremum (not necessarily a minimum). This talk aims both to be pedagogical and to provide a summary of our most recent work in this area. We focus mainly on the random-phase approximation (RPA) for the correlation functional which yields the GW self-energy for the Green’s function. We will describe ecient approaches for computing the RPA correlation energy; how various types of approximations to the correlation energy create a ladder of approximate self-energy operators and what type of physics is included in these approximations (exchange, screening, Hubbard U, etc.); and how the extremization is in fact highly problematic. We will end with some ideas for making practical progress with the extremization and their relation to the successful Quasiparticle Self-consistent GW (QSGW) scheme [1].
In this lecture we present many-body perturbation theory as a method to determine quasiparticle excitations in solids, especially electronic band structures, accurately from first principles.The main ingredient is the electronic self-energy that, in principle, contains all many-body exchange and correlation effects beyond the Hartree potential.As its exact mathematical expression is unknown, approximations must be used in practical calculations.The approximation is obtained using a systematic algebraic approach on the basis of Green function techniques.It constitutes an expansion of the self-energy up to linear order in the screened Coulomb potential, which describes the interaction between the quasiparticles and includes dynamic screening through the creation of exchange-correlation holes around the bare particles.The implementation of the approximation relies on a perturbative treatment starting from density functional theory.Besides a detailed mathematical discussion we focus on the underlying physical concepts and show some illustrative applications.
Many observables such as the density, total energy, or electric current, can be expressed explicitly in terms of the one‐body Green's function, which describes electron addition or removal to or from a system. An efficient way to determine such a Green's function is to introduce a self‐energy, which is a nonlocal and dynamic effective potential that influences the propagation of particles in an interacting system. The state‐of‐the art approximation for the self‐energy is the GW approximation, where the system to (or from) which the electron is added (or removed) is described as a polarizable, screening, medium. This is expressed by the name of the approximation: ‘GW’ stands for the one‐body Green's function G and for W , the dynamically screened Coulomb interaction. The GW approximation is very popular for the calculation of band structures in solids, and increasingly used also to describe nanostructures, clusters, and molecules. As compared to static mean‐field approximations for the effective potential, the dynamical screening of the Coulomb interaction in GW leads to a renormalization of energies, to broadening and/or to the observation of additional excitations. An analysis of the approximations that lead to the GW self‐energy, and of the underlying picture, explains the successes and the limitations of the approach. This article is categorized under: Electronic Structure Theory > Density Functional Theory Electronic Structure Theory > Ab Initio Electronic Structure Methods Theoretical and Physical Chemistry > Spectroscopy Structure and Mechanism > Computational Materials Science
In many-body perturbation theory (MBPT) the self-energy $\ensuremath{\Sigma}=iGW\ensuremath{\Gamma}$ plays a key role since it contains all the many-body effects of the system. The exact self-energy is not known; as a first approximation one can set the vertex function $\ensuremath{\Gamma}$ to unity which leads to the GW approximation. The latter properly describes the high-density regime, where screening is important; in the low-density regime, instead, other approximations are proposed, such as the T matrix, which describes multiple scattering between two particles. Here we combine the two approaches. Starting from the fundamental equations of MBPT, we show how one can derive the T-matrix approximation to the self-energy in a common framework with GW. This allows us to elucidate several aspects of this formulation, including the origin of, and link between, the electron-hole and the particle-particle T matrix, the derivation of a screened T matrix, and the conversion of the T matrix into a vertex correction. The exactly solvable Hubbard molecule is used for illustration.
The correlation energy of an inhomogeneous electron gas is ruled by the density correlation function L. It obeys a Bethe-Salpeter equation (BSE), whose kernel is the functional derivative of the particle self-energy. It is solved on equal footing for two-particle and single-particle Green's functions within Hedin's GW approximation. According to the Hartree and exchange-correlation contributions to the kernel, the correlation expression decays into random-phase-approximation (RPA) -like and screened-exchange-like parts. The actual treatment of the screened potential W in the BSE for L leads to different second-order screened exchange corrections (SOSEX). Including correlation in the kernel even yields approximations beyond SOSEX. The progress beyond RPA is illustrated for spinless and spin-polarized homogeneous electron gases, indicating that the screening treatment is substantial.