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InGaAs/InP單光子雪崩二極體於Self-Differencing 模式的特性探討

陳政儒

Published Jan 1, 2010• 0 citations
OpenAlex

Abstract

In this thesis, we investigate the single photon detection ability of Avalanche Photodiode (APD) at 1550 nm and improve the single photon detection efficiency by using Self-Differencing technique. In order to apply this experimental setup to the Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) system, we have to discuss and analyze characteristic parameters of APD, including Dark Count Rate (DCR), Single Photon Detection Efficiency (SPDE), Noise Equipment Power (NEP) and Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER). For the purpose of reducing the spike effect caused by the capacitance in the APD, we try to process the output signal from the conventional setup output using the Self-Differencing circuit for spike cancelling. Moreover, it can also significantly decrease discrimination level. At lower discrimination level can let us catch more avalanche signals and raise the detection performance. This setup makes it more efficient under the -50℃. In our experiment, we investigate the influence of single photon detection efficiency from different parameters, such as temperature, excess bias voltage, pulse width and gated frequency. To demonstrate the afterpulsing effect by releasing the trapped carriers in the lower temperature, we cool down the APD to the temperature of -70℃. We also choose the best parameters to calculate the results of Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER) and the transmission distance in theory. All of that are prepared for the structuring a Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) system in the future studies. Finally, using the self-differencing schematic at a temperature of -50℃, with a repetition rate of 100 KHz, and the excess bias voltage of 3 V, the best single-photon detection efficiency of 17.43% and the equivalent noise power is as low as 1.92×10-15 W/Hz1/2 were obtained. It is found that the minimum dark count rate of 1.2×10-5 appears when the temperature is -60℃ and the excess bias voltage is 1.6 V. Using above condition, the corresponding back to back quantum bit error rate is 3.09%. The maximum available transmission distance is 42 Km in which the quantum bit error rate is expected below 15%.

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•May 19, 2008•89 citations
In this thesis, we investigate the single photon detection ability of Avalanche Photodiode (APD) at 1550 nm and improve the single photon detection efficiency by using Self-Differencing technique. In order to apply this experimental setup to the Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) system, we have to discuss and analyze characteristic parameters of APD, including Dark Count Rate (DCR), Single Photon Detection Efficiency (SPDE), Noise Equipment Power (NEP) and Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER). For the purpose of reducing the spike effect caused by the capacitance in the APD, we try to process the output signal from the conventional setup output using the Self-Differencing circuit for spike cancelling. Moreover, it can also significantly decrease discrimination level. At lower discrimination level can let us catch more avalanche signals and raise the detection performance. This setup makes it more efficient under the -50℃.
In our experiment, we investigate the influence of single photon detection efficiency from different parameters, such as temperature, excess bias voltage, pulse width and gated frequency. To demonstrate the afterpulsing effect by releasing the trapped carriers in the lower temperature, we cool down the APD to the temperature of -70℃. We also choose the best parameters to calculate the results of Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER) and the transmission distance in theory. All of that are prepared for the structuring a Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) system in the future studies.
Finally, using the self-differencing schematic at a temperature of -50℃, with a repetition rate of 100 KHz, and the excess bias voltage of 3 V, the best single-photon detection efficiency of 17.43% and the equivalent noise power is as low as 1.92×10-15 W/Hz1/2 were obtained. It is found that the minimum dark count rate of 1.2×10-5 appears when the temperature is -60℃ and the excess bias voltage is 1.6 V. Using above condition, the corresponding back to back quantum bit error rate is 3.09%. The maximum available transmission distance is 42 Km in which the quantum bit error rate is expected below 15%.
In our experiment, two InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiodes (APD) were used in the quantum key distribution (QKD) system for single-photon detection at telecom communication wavelength (1310/1550 nm). By using properly designed passive-quenching circuit, the photo-detection efficiency of the APD could reach 10% at 1550 nm. In order to decrease the dark count rate efficiently, we designed a coincident counting circuits for single-photon detection. Before the APD signals were sent to the signal processing circuit, the avalanche signals were amplified and shaped into the TTL pulses. In order to obtain an accurate and efficient data acquisition and to transfer synchronically several signals such as the TTL signals and pulses from Random generators, we designed a signal processing circuit with the parallel port whose speed limitation is about 100Kb/s. In our experiments of single-photon interference and quantum cryptography, the electronic designs presented us satisfactory performance and results. To achieve much higher speed for the data acquisition, we also employed the Universal Serial Bus System (USB2.0) to interface our single-photon avalanche detectors and random generators used in our QKD system, which was believed to improve the performance of QKD such as the key distribution speed.
We provide a direct comparison between the InGaAs avalanche photodiode (APD) and the NbN superconducting single photon detector (SSPD) for applications in fiber-based quantum cryptography. The quantum efficiency and dark count rate were measured for each detector, and used to calculate the quantum bit error rate (QBER) and shared key rate for a QKD link. The results indicate that, despite low quantum efficiency, the speed of the SSPD makes it a superior detector for quantum information applications. Finally, we present results of an initial integration of an SSPD into a receiver node of the DARPA quantum network to perform quantum key distribution. Encoding quantum information on single photons has enabled the realization of a number of unique communication schemes such as the implementation of the BB84 protocol for quantum key distribution 1 and quantum dense coding. 2 Furthermore, the implementation of these schemes using photons at telecommunication wavelengths has permitted their extension to fiber optic networks, 3,4 drastically increasing the practicality of quantum information processing. To date, the state of the art in commercially available single photon detection at telecommunication wavelengths (1550 nm) has been the thermo-electrically cooled InGaAs avalanche photodiode (APD). The cooled InGaAs APD is generally operated at T = -60°C in the reverse-biased Geiger mode. Though these detectors have been successfully implemented in operating QKD links in optical fiber, the InGaAs APD suffers from afterpulsing effects that limit the key exchange rates. New SPD (single photon detector) technologies based on superconducting materials are emerging that hold tremendous promise for drastically increasing the photon counting rate and eliminating dark noise.57 The SSPD consists of a NbN thin film (t ∼ 5 nm) patterned into a narrow (w ∼ 100 nm) microstrip meander that is ∼ 500μm in length. The detector is cooled to T < 4K in a closed cycle refrigeration unit and a bias current I b is supplied to the device just below the superconducting critical current (I c ). When a photon is incident upon the microstrip superconductivity is broken in the region local to photon absorption and a normal state region is formed in the device. The current passing through the device causes a measurable voltage pulse in the detector that can be amplified and shaped to act as an input for traditional logic circuitry. Due to the unique electronic bandstructure in a superconducting material the intrinsic response time of the device is on the order of picoseconds, so that the repetition rate may be increased above 1 GHz 8 without being susceptible to afterpulsing effects that plague the InGaAs APD. 9 To make a direct comparison between the InGaAs APD and the SSPD both were placed in a SPD characterization testbed to measure quantum efficiency and dark count rate at a variety of bias conditions. The QBER for a QKD link is calculated from the measured parameters and then compared to requirements for a provably secure QKD link. Following detector characterization, one of the nodes of the DARPA Quantum Network operated by BBN Technologies 3 utilized an SSPD in the receiver to transmit key material. The demonstration provides an in situ comparison between the InGaAs APD, normally operated in the BBN link, and the SSPD.
Quantum communication, in particular, quantum key distribution (QKD) is moving ever closer to real world implementation. However, for successful QKD system deployment, the QKD system components must be robustly designed and feature highly reliable operation. In this paper we focus on one important aspect of any quantum communication system: the single photon detector. In particular our interest is centered upon the InGaAs avalanche photodiode (APD) single photon detector operating in a self-differencing (SD) mode. Such a detector features high clock frequencies of up to 3GHz, high photon count rates as well as detection efficiencies approaching 20% with low afterpulsing. We show successful operation of a high bit rate QKD system using this SD-APD technology in a real world fiber network.
A single-photon detector (SPD) at 1550 nm is essential for quantum key distribution (QKD) based on optical fiber links. A cooled InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiode (APD) is a candidate for the SPD, because it has a high detection efficiency with a low dark count probability. However, the maximum detection speed was very slow (<10 MHz), which is due to the afterpulsing phenomenon. Recently we proposed the sinusoidal gating scheme and demonstrated the high-speed (500-800MHz) single-photon detection with a low afterpulsing probability. In the scheme, the overall afterpulsing probability is somewhat high when the gating frequency is lower than 100MHz. In this paper, we report on the afterpulsing-free (<1%) 80MHz single-photon detection using the sinusoidal gating. The 80MHz mode-locked titanium sapphire laser emits ~90 fs optical pulses at 810 nm. The wavelength of the optical pulses is converted into 1550 nm by the optical parametric oscillator (OPO). The 1550 nm optical pulses (~120 fs) are attenuated to the single-photon level and led to the APD (EPITAXX EPM239BA) cooled to -35 degrees Celsius. The cooled APD was operated with sinusoidal gating.
Using InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiodes as sensors and coaxial cables as reflection lines to reject spike signals, we have firstly employed the ``timing filtering'' gates to pick out avalanche signals and have realized the single photon detection at 1550 nm in the temperature range of thermoelectric cooling. A ratio of the dark count rate to the detection efficiency was obtained to be 9 × 10 −5 at 223 K. When the detector is applied to a practical quantum key distribution system, the transmission distance can reach 89.5 km and the repetition rate can reach 0.33 MHz.
We report a demonstration of quantum key distribution (QKD) at gigahertz clock rates with InGaAs avalanche photodiodes (APDs) operating in a self-differencing mode. Such a mode of operation allows detection of extremely weak avalanches so that the detector afterpulse noise is sufficiently suppressed. The system is characterized by a secure bit rate of 2.37Mbit∕s at 5.6km and 27.9kbit∕s at 65.5km when the fiber dispersion is not compensated. After compensating the fiber dispersion, the QKD distance is extended to 101km, resulting in a secure key rate of 2.88kbit∕s. Our results suggest that InGaAs APDs are very well suited to gigahertz QKD applications.