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Applied Physics Letters

Mid-infrared superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors: Potential, progress, and challenges

Gregor G. Taylor, Robert H. Hadfield

Published Jan 5, 2026• 9 citations
Publisher

Abstract

The ability to detect single photons in the mid-infrared spectral range (beyond 2 μm wavelength, photon energy below 0.62 eV) is the key to unlocking a range of emerging scientific applications, from remote sensing LIDAR, molecular spectroscopy, and powerful new approaches to dark matter detection. Conventional detector types, such as semiconductor single-photon avalanche diodes, lose sensitivity at such low photon energy. Superconducting materials, with a much lower characteristic energy gap, hold particular promise. In this Perspective, we focus on recent advances in superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors, which have recently extended single-photon sensitivity up to 29 μm (0.043 eV). We discuss the potential for future advances and strategies to overcome challenges to technological development.

DOI
10.1063/5.0303649

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The ability to detect single photons in the mid-infrared spectral range (beyond 2 μm wavelength, photon energy below 0.62 eV) is the key to unlocking a range of emerging scientific applications, from remote sensing LIDAR, molecular spectroscopy, and powerful new approaches to dark matter detection. Conventional detector types, such as semiconductor single-photon avalanche diodes, lose sensitivity at such low photon energy. Superconducting materials, with a much lower characteristic energy gap, hold particular promise. In this Perspective, we focus on recent advances in superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors, which have recently extended single-photon sensitivity up to 29 μm (0.043 eV). We discuss the potential for future advances and strategies to overcome challenges to technological development.
Extending single-photon detection capabilities into the mid- infrared is expected to have far-reaching implications for long-wavelength quantum optics, quantum and free-space communication, astronomy, environmental monitoring, and fundamental molecular sciences. We showcase the development of short-wave infrared (2.2-2.3 µm) and mid- wave infrared (3.0 µm) superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs). In both wavelength ranges, we venture beyond state-of-the-art and achieve the best-reported system detection efficiencies and specific detectivity. We discuss the challenges in cryogenics, optics, and SNSPD design and use our mid-infrared single-photon detection to characterize emerging materials platforms and quantum emitters in a previously unattainable manner.
Single-photon counting has become an essential tool in quantum optics experiments, as well as remote sensing and life science applications. However conventional technologies such as single-photon avalanche diodes, as well as the availability of standard telecom optical components, has limited much of this work to the near infrared/telecom wavelength range. Superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPDs) have emerged in recent years as the gold standard in photon counting applications due to their low dark count rates, fast timing resolution and high efficiency [1]. SNSPDs have also demonstrated photon counting efficiency out to much greater wavelengths which enables us to explore new experimental possibilities in the mid-infrared [2]. In this work we design and fabricate mid-infrared SNSPDs and deploy them in a variety of photon counting experiments [3,4]. The devices are based on a NbTiN superconducting film integrated into an optical cavity to enhance absorption in the mid-infrared. We characterise these devices using an optical parametric oscillator, tuneable between 1.5 m and 4.2 m. We then deploy these in a proof-of-principle tabletop light detection and ranging (LIDAR) experiment at 2.3 m. LIDAR in the mid-infrared is attractive due to spectral regions of low atmospheric absorption and reduced solar background photon flux, when compared to telecom wavelengths. We also present results from a photon-pair source operating at 2 m. This is a key resource for extending quantum optics and quantum secure communications to the mid infrared domain. Pairs are generated using a custom lithium niobate crystal and detected using SNSPDs. We demonstrate two-photon interference and polarisation entanglement of the photon pairs at 2 m. This work opens the pathway to future development of quantum optics and quantum technologies in the mid-infrared spectral region. References [1] Gol’tsman et al Applied Physics Letters 79 705 (2001) [2] Marisli et al Nano Letters 12 (9) 4799 (2012) [3] G. G. Taylor et al Optics Express 26 (27) 38147 (2018) [4] S. Prabhakar et al Science Advances 6 (13) eaay5195 (2019)
Extending single-photon detection capabilities into the mid- infrared is expected to have far-reaching implications for long-wavelength quantum optics, quantum and free-space communication, astronomy, environmental monitoring, and fundamental molecular sciences. We showcase the development of short-wave infrared (2.2-2.3 µm) and mid- wave infrared (3.0 µm) superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs). In both wavelength ranges, we venture beyond state-of-the-art and achieve the best-reported system detection efficiencies and specific detectivity. We discuss the challenges in cryogenics, optics, and SNSPD design and use our mid-infrared single-photon detection to characterize emerging materials platforms and quantum emitters in a previously unattainable manner.
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors are widely used for detecting individual photons across various wavelengths from ultraviolet to near-infrared range. Recently, there has been increasing interest in enhancing their sensitivity to single photons in the mid-infrared spectrum, driven by applications in quantum communication, spectroscopy, and astrophysics. Here, we present our efforts to expand the spectral detection capabilities of U-shaped NbTiN-based superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors, fabricated in a 2-wire configuration on a silicon-on-insulator substrate, into the mid-infrared range. We demonstrate saturated internal detection efficiency extending up to a wavelength of 3.5 μm for a 5 nm thick and 50 nm wide NbTiN nanowire with a dark count rate less than 10 counts per second at 0.9 K and a rapid recovery time of 4.3 ns. The detectors are engineered for integration on waveguides in a silicon-on-insulator platform for compact, multi-channel device applications.
Superconducting Nanowire Single Photon Detectors (SNSPDs) are the most advanced detectors available for time-resolved single photon counting from the UV to the mid-infrared. We will discuss recent progress in SNSPD development for the ground terminal in NASA’s Deep Space Optical Communication (DSOC) project as well as recent performance advances in other metrics, including the development of kilopixel SNSPD arrays, single-photon sensitivity at mid-infrared wavelengths as long as 10 microns, and SNSPDs with sub-3ps timing jitter. I will discuss a range of new potential scientific applications for SNSPDs, including exoplanet transit spectroscopy, dark matter detection, fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy, and quantum information science.
Superconducting Nanowire Single photon Detectors (SNSPDs) offer unparalleled performance for IR photon counting, combining close to unity quantum efficiency, low intrinsic noise and ultrafast timing jitter. The ability of SNSPDs to count photons in mid-IR band up to 7 um wavelength opens up new possibilities in quantum optics, laser ranging, free space Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and astronomy. Here we report on development of mid-IR SNSPDs including device design, fabrication, optimisation of superconducting materials and characterisation. We present a characterisation setup covering 1.5 - 4.2 um spectral region based on tuneable optical parametric oscillator with picosecond long pulses. We then demonstrate the viability of mid infrared SNSPDs for a variety of applications and report the results from single photon light detection and ranging (LIDAR) experiment with 2.3 um photons. This work paves the way for future app in free space QKD, deep space communication and astronomy.