This lecture describes certain properties of interacting Bose gases and superconductors which have recently been considered at Harvard. It is a brief resumé of work by the lecturer, P.C. Hohenberg, A. Fetter, R. Lange, and C. De Dominicis, which will be reported in mathematical detail elsewhere. It concerns attempts to derive from fundamental principles, several aspects of the macroscopic two-fluid model of London, Landau, and Tisza, the Landau phonon spectrum for bosons, and the structured condensate envisaged by Onsager and Feynman. The lecture describes new results which have been obtained concerning: (1) methods for calculating properties of large, but not necessarily infinite, condensed systems at finite temperatures; (2) methods for performing calculations in boson systems consistent with current conservation and sum rules; (3) results obtained by these methods for the phonon spectrum; (4) more accurate results for the less physical single-particle spectrum at finite temperatures; (5) results obtained for the macroscopically structured condensate in rotating systems which agree with the macroscopically inferred results of Feynman and Onsager; (6) results which treat depletion of the condensate as a result of interaction consistently and verify that nonetheless, the superfluid density, as operationally determined, is not correspondingly depleted; (7) methods in which the entropy plays a central role, for casting the macroscopic theory in a form which lays stress on the renormalized excitations of renormalized interactions; (8) the almost identical features of the mathematics for condensed Fermi and Bose systems; (9) a restatement, in this microscopic transcription, of the Feynman-Onsager argument for flux and vorticity quantization.
This lecture describes certain properties of interacting Bose gases and superconductors which have recently been considered at Harvard. It is a brief resumé of work by the lecturer, P.C. Hohenberg, A. Fetter, R. Lange, and C. De Dominicis, which will be reported in mathematical detail elsewhere. It concerns attempts to derive from fundamental principles, several aspects of the macroscopic two-fluid model of London, Landau, and Tisza, the Landau phonon spectrum for bosons, and the structured condensate envisaged by Onsager and Feynman. The lecture describes new results which have been obtained concerning: (1) methods for calculating properties of large, but not necessarily infinite, condensed systems at finite temperatures; (2) methods for performing calculations in boson systems consistent with current conservation and sum rules; (3) results obtained by these methods for the phonon spectrum; (4) more accurate results for the less physical single-particle spectrum at finite temperatures; (5) results obtained for the macroscopically structured condensate in rotating systems which agree with the macroscopically inferred results of Feynman and Onsager; (6) results which treat depletion of the condensate as a result of interaction consistently and verify that nonetheless, the superfluid density, as operationally determined, is not correspondingly depleted; (7) methods in which the entropy plays a central role, for casting the macroscopic theory in a form which lays stress on the renormalized excitations of renormalized interactions; (8) the almost identical features of the mathematics for condensed Fermi and Bose systems; (9) a restatement, in this microscopic transcription, of the Feynman-Onsager argument for flux and vorticity quantization.
We conclude our study of superfluidity in Bose liquids with a brief summary of the strengths, and of the inadequacies, of the theory. The cornerstone of our fundamental understanding of superfluidity has been the recognition of the central importance of the condensate, a single quantum state which is macroscopically occupied. For the Bose liquid one has a particle condensate, characterized by a non-vanishing expectation value of ψ (r). The existence of the condensate explains all major aspects of superfluid behavior; in particular, we now possess: A clear understanding of the static and the long wavelength dynamic properties of an equilibrium Bose liquid, including a microscopic basis for the two-fluid model. A precise microscopic theory at T = 0 for a specific model, the dilute Bose gas. Variational calculations of the excitation spectrum of liquid He II (and of the ground state properties as well), which are in good quantitative agreement with experiment. A satisfactory phenomenological treatment of the interactions between elementary excitations which give rise to various irreversible phenomena. A qualitative understanding of the role which is played by quantized vortices in both equilibrium and non-equilibrium phenomena.
The Bose-Einstein condensation mechanism is shown to be capable of accounting for the existence of separate hydrodynamic velocity fields for the normal and the superfluid, provided suitable assumptions are made with regard to the single-particle energy spectrum. We consider the effect on the microcanonical gas distribution of imposing a nonzero value of the total momentum P. For an ordinary gas the effect is trivial, the whole distribution being merely shifted in momentum space. However, in the case of a degenerate Bose gas whose single-particle energy spectrum has a sharp minimum (gap or cusp), only the excited part of the gas (normal fluid) participates in the imposed motion, the condensate (superfluid) remaining "frozen" in momentum space. This rigidity of the condensate in momentum space plays the same role as the rigidity of the superelectrons on imposition of a magnetic field in the London theory of superconductivity. P acts as an additional thermodynamic variable, states with P \ensuremath{\ne} 0 being macroscopically metastable and corresponding to the existence of a relative velocity between normal and superfluid. The basic hydrodynamic assumption of the two-fluid model is thus reduced to an assumption concerning the form of an effective single-particle energy spectrum, and the parallelism between the theories of superconductivity and superfluidity is clearly exhibited. The present theory permits, in particular, the introduction of the mathematical form of Landau's phonon and "roton" spectra within the framework of the Bose-Einstein condensation picture. The statistical-thermodynamic formulas are derived and are shown to lead to characteristic two-fluid equations derived previously from a variational principle.
Bose-Einstein condensation, superfluidity, and superconductivity are quantum mechanics made visible. They mark the boundary between the classical and the quantum worlds, and they show the macroscopic role of quantum mechanics in condensed matter. This book presents these phenomena in terms of particles, their positions, and their momenta, giving a concrete visualisation and description that is not possible with traditional wave functions. A single approach that bridges the classical-quantum divide provides new insight into the role of particle interactions in condensation, the nature of collisions in superfluid flow, and the physical form of Cooper pairs in high-temperature superconductors. High-temperature superconductivity is explored with quantum statistical mechanics, which links it to Bose-Einstein condensation. Identifying a new mechanism for Cooper pairing, this explains the differences between the low- and high-temperature superconducting regimes and the role of the molecular structure of the conductor. The new perspective offered by this book on Bose-Einstein condensation, superfluidity, and high-temperature superconductivity gives particle-based explanations as well as mathematical and computational methods for these macroscopic quantum phenomena so that readers understand the role of particle interactions and structure in the physics of these phenomena. This book will appeal to undergraduate and graduate students, lecturers, academics, and scientific researchers in the fields of Bose-Einstein condensation and condensates, superfluidity, and superconductivity. It will also be of interest to those working with thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, statistical physics, quantum mechanics, molecular dynamics, materials science, condensed matter physics, and theoretical chemistry. Key Features: · Explores Bose-Einstein condensation with new evidence for multiple condensed states and novel Monte Carlo simulations for interacting bosons · Establishes the thermodynamic nature of condensed bosons from an analysis of fountain pressure measurements, including that they carry energy and entropy, and the thermodynamic principle of superfluid flow · Derives equations of motion for condensed bosons, and performs molecular dynamics simulations of the viscosity with molecular trajectories that give rise to superfluidity · Identifies the mechanism for electron pairing in high-temperature superconductivity
This chapter concludes the study of superfluidity in Bose liquids with a brief summary of the strengths, and of the inadequacies, of the theory. A clear understanding of the static and the long wavelength dynamic properties of an equilibrium Bose liquid, including a microscopic basis for the two-fluid model. Variational calculations of the excitation spectrum of liquid He II, which are in good quantitative agreement with experiment. A satisfactory phenomenological treatment of the interactions between elementary excitations which give rise to various irreversible phenomena. A microscopic theory of the ground state and elementary excitation spectrum of liquid He II; in fact, even the theory of the simple dilute Bose gas has not yet been extended to treat the system at finite temperatures, and under non-equilibrium situations. A clear understanding of a number of "vortex" properties, including the critical current for superfluid flow in thin capillaries.
Macro-orbital representation of a particle (detailed account given in cond-mat/0603784) has been used to develop the microscopic theory of a system of interacting bosons. It concludes that: (i) below certain temperature (say, Tλ), particles assume a state of (q, -q) bound pairs, (ii) the λ−transition is a consequence of inter-particle quantum correlations clubbed with zero-point repulsion and inter-particle attraction and represents an onset of the order-disorder of particles in their ϕ−space followed simultaneously by their BEC as (q, -q) bound pairs in a state of q = qo=π/d and K = 0, (iii) particles at T≤Tλ acquire collective binding which locks them at = 0, = λ/2 and Δϕ=2nπ (with n = 1, 2, 3, ...), (iv) the entire system assumes mechanical strain in inter-particle bonds and behaves like a single macroscopic molecule, (v) there exists an energy gap between the superfluid and normal fluid phases of the system, (vi) the λ−transition represents the twin phenomena of broken gauge symmetry and phase coherence, (vii) the system does not have p = 0 condensate, (viii) a new kind of quantum quasi-particle "omon" (a phononlike wave of the oscillations of the momentum coordinates of particles) exists in superfluid phase, etc. It explains the properties of He-II, including the origin of quantized vortices, critical velocities, logarithmic singularity of specific heat, etc. at quantitative level and provides microscopic foundation to two fluid theory, Ψ−theory, idea of macroscopic wave function, etc. The framework of the theory can unify the physics of interacting bosons and fermions.
The equations of motion for the reduced density matrices of an interacting Bose system are treated using the concept of off-diagonal long-range order. The equations are decoupled on the one-particle level. With this approximation, the hydrodynamic equations for the densities and the velocities of the condensate and the depletion are derived. The interaction between the two fluid components depends on density variations and on the relative velocity. The latter interaction terms appear as kinetic pressure terms and a Magnus force term. Via the equation for the total momentum, a connection between the velocities of the condensate and the depletion, and the velocities in Landau's two-fluid model is derived. The excitation spectrum of the system is investigated in the phonon region. A comparison of the resulting velocities for the first and second sound with the experimentally determined ones shows that the functional dependence of the condensate density on temperature is similar to that of the superfluid component.