Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Log inSign up
Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Blog
Job Board
Q3AS

© 2026 Aqora Quantum S.A.S.

TermsPrivacyLegal Notice

International Journal of Electronics and Communication Engineering

An Entropy-Based Adaptive Quantum Image Representation (EBA-QR) for Efficient Multimodal Image Processing

Vrushali Nikam, Shirish S. Sane

Published Apr 30, 2026• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Superposition, entanglement, and quantum parallelism can be utilized in Quantum Image Processing (QIP) as a promising paradigm for expediting large-scale visual computing workloads. However, the majority of existing content-agnostic Quantum Image Representation (QIR) models allocate an equal amount of computational resources to individual pixels, irrespective of their semantic significance. This approach poses particular challenges to Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) systems, especially in noise-sensitive applications such as medical imaging and maritime surveillance, where low coherence and noisy gates significantly constrain the achievable circuit depth. In order to apply dynamically local resource assignment conditions by the complexity of the image, this paper presents EBA-QR (Entropy-Based Adaptive Quantum Representation), a content- sensitive encoding scheme, which combines a local Shannon entropy scheme and quantum circuit synthesis. EBA-QR does not process the pixels as equals but divides the image into discrete blocks, calculates the number of pixels in each block, and the block entropy, then uses a threshold, which is adjustable, below which each block is considered to be part of Interest (ROI), or the background. In contrast to low- entropy background blocks, which are coded with gate-skipping algorithms to approximate a fixed cost of a gate per block, high- entropy blocks are coded with the NEQR-like basis-state accuracy. The total cost of preparation is proportional to the size of the regions of ROI, and a formal gate-cost optimization function can also be applied to work with a reduction of up to two orders of magnitude compared to NEQR in sparse sceneries without increasing the number of qubits. These benefits are observed to be the effect of entropy-directed gate allocation, not necessarily of classical masking by an Entropy-Based Mask (EBM) control of a NEQR +Mask control baseline that retains the normal NEQR circuit. There are three datasets that were applied as SAR ship detection imaging based on SSDD, brain tumor MRI scans, and so on. Images of Doha International Airport and ICEYE SAR are benchmarked and tested on 10 performance parameters. The development of Qiskit simulators is accomplished. Circuit and all graphics are downsampled to 32 x 32 so as to look NISQ-era. The findings indicate that EBA-QR possesses the fidelity of the level of NEQR in ROIs and is not prone to common aberrations of transform-based compression schemes, and by a maximum of 78.1 percent on sparse SAR sceneries, simplifying the complexity of gates. 64.7% on brain MRI. Moreover, EBA-QR consents that it is helpful. End to-End image processing system in the NISQ era and a successful building block in future quantum pipelines, edge detection, and medical diagnostics satellite monitoring to help in basic operations on images, like geometric transform, image flipping, and Sobel edge detection.

DOI
10.14445/23488549/ijece-v13i4p128

Related papers

Adaptive Hybrid Quantum Image Representation for Efficient Encoding of Medical and SAR Image

Thouseef f

Abstract Quantum image representation constitutes a foundational component of quantum image processing; however, its practical deployment on Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) hardware is fundamentally constrained by the cost of quantum state preparation. Existing representations such as the Flexible Representation of Quantum Images (FRQI) and the Novel Enhanced Quantum Representation (NEQR) rely on uniform, full-resolution encoding strategies that incur rapidly increasing gate counts and circuit depths, leading to severe decoherence and error accumulation on near-term devices. These limitations are particularly pronounced for heterogeneous and information-sparse modalities such as medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), where uniform pixel-wise encoding introduces substantial redundant state preparation. To address these constraints, we propose Adaptive Hybrid Quantum Image Representation (AHQIR), a saliency-driven selective quantum state-preparation framework designed for efficient encoding of medical and SAR imagery under NISQ limitations. AHQIR departs from global encoding by employing a classical adaptive preprocessing stage to identify diagnostically significant regions in MRI and dominant backscatter structures in SAR images using a statistical thresholding criterion, thereby restricting quantum encoding to a salient pixel subset S. The quantum realization of AHQIR integrates Perception-Aided Encoding (PE) and Coherent-Size Encoding (CE) mechanisms, which condition state preparation on salient pixel coordinates and eliminate the requirement for power-of-two image padding. As a result, circuit depth and multi-qubit gate count scale with the number of salient pixels rather than total image size, enabling physically realizable circuits within current coherence limits. This selective and intentionally lossy design sacrifices global pixel-level fidelity in non-salient regions in order to preserve semantic and structural fidelity within regions of interest. AHQIR is evaluated against multiple state-of-the-art quantum image encoding schemes, including FRQI and NEQR, across Brain Tumor MRI and real-world SAR datasets. Experimental results demonstrate substantial reductions in gate count and improved robustness under realistic noise models, while maintaining reconstruction errors below clinically and analytically relevant thresholds for salient regions. These findings indicate that saliency-aware, selective state preparation offers a practical and scalable pathway for quantum.

•Mar 31, 2026•0 citations

An Enhanced Quantum Image Representation for Improved Intensity Preservation and Fidelity

Vrushali Nikam, Shirish S. Sane

Abstract Quantum Image Representation (QIR) is a fundamental concept in quantum image processing. It describes how classical images are converted into quantum states for processing on quantum computers. Researchers proposed several QIR models, with FRQI and NEQR being the most popular ones. These models show the possibilities of the quantum image encoding. Nevertheless, they are also limited in some way. Mostly, pixel intensity accuracy, the required number of qubits, and circuit complexity have trade-offs. Their application to Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) devices becomes challenging, the quantum resources being small in such devices, due to this. In the following paper, we introduce our own approach, which is the Intensity-Preserving Quantum image Representation (IP-QIR). The key aim of IP-QIR is to maintain the information about the grayscale intensities and decrease the amount of quantum resources. IP-QIR quantifies pixel intensities by a controlled rotation scheme. The measurement statistics of a single qubit hold the intensity information and the position qubits represent the spatial information. The strategy uses small patches of images rather than complete images to make it easy to implement. This will decrease the depth of circuit design and makes the approach less advanced to the near-term quantum hardware. IBM Qiskit simulations are used in assessing the performance of IP-QIR. The three types of grayscale images of which experiments are run are the synthetic image patches, SAR images and medical TB chest X-ray images. It is revealed that IP-QIR maintains the intensity information compared to the FRQI and NEQR. SAR and medical data can reach values of fidelity of 84.12\%. The other notable point is that the size of a 4 x 4 image patch only needs five qubits which are much lower than in NEQR. Meanwhile, good reconstruction accuracy is achieved. These findings demonstrate the fact that IP-QIR is an effective and realistic approach to quantum image representation on the NISQ-era quantum devices.

•Mar 3, 2026•2 citations

QRISP: Qubit-Efficient and Resolution-Independent Quantum Image Representation for Scalable NISQ Processing

Sumitha Valsalam, Tony Thomas

Abstract The Quantum Image Representation (QIR) remains one of the most significant challenges in Quantum Image Processing (QIP) and Quantum Machine Learning (QML) with the resource constraints required by Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) hardware. Currently available pixel representation schemes, such as Flexible Representation of Quantum Images (FRQI) and Novel Enhanced Quantum Representation (NEQR), typically have circuit depth and the number of required qubits that grow with image resolution, rendering them impractical for large-scale images. To alleviate these limitations, we propose the Qubit-Efficient and Resolution-Independent Quantum Image Representation (QRISP), a compact, feature-aware encoding framework that is resource-efficient while preserving discriminative information for classification. The proposed approach divides an image into a user-configurable number of non-overlapping blocks, stores complementary statistical descriptors such as mean intensity, local variance, dominant gradient orientation, and calculates the same descriptors using a series of parameterized rotation gates in a quantum feature register; a position register is used to store block indices, and a lightweight entanglement layer is used to store the feature correlations. One of the major features of QRISP is the resolution-independent quantum circuit structure of quantum resources, which depend on the block configuration rather than the image size, allowing flexible processing and trade-offs between representation fidelity and qubit complexity. Experimental results with the MNIST and Fashion-MNIST datasets for the case of Quantum Support Vector Machine (QSVM) and Quantum Neural Network (QNN) pipelines show significant improvement in the number of gates and depth of the circuits, as well as in the time for computing the kernel, without compromising the classification results from FRQI and NEQR, with respect to which their performance is competitive. This shows their potential for scalable, NISQ-oriented quantum image processing.

•Aug 20, 2026•0 citations

Quantum Image Representation with Enhanced Intensity Preservation and Fidelity (IP-QIR)

Vrushali Nikam, Shirish S. Sane, Manish Motghare

Quantum image representation (QIR) is the basic idea behind quantum image processing. It explains how a normal image is converted into quantum states so that it can be processed using quantum computers. The commonly used models for QIR are Flexible Representation of Quantum Images (FRQIs) and Novel Enhanced Quantum Representation (NEQR). Though these approaches highlight the potential of quantum-based image encoding, the limitation of practical applicability on Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) devices exists. In this paper, we propose an intensity-preserving quantum image representation (IP-QIR) scheme that aims to maintain accurate grayscale intensity information while significantly reducing quantum resource usage. The proposed method employs a controlled rotation-based encoding strategy, where pixel intensities are embedded into the measurement probability of a single intensity qubit, and spatial information is represented using position qubits. To further enhance feasibility on near-term quantum hardware, the framework operates on small image patches instead of full-resolution images, thereby reducing circuit depth and overall complexity. The performance of the proposed IP-QIR approach is evaluated through IBM Qiskit simulations on three types of grayscale images: synthetic image patches, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images, and medical tuberculosis (TB) chest X-ray images. Experimental results demonstrate that IP-QIR achieves better intensity preservation than FRQIs and NEQR, with fidelity values reaching up to 84.12% for both SAR and medical datasets. In addition, IP-QIR represents a 4×4 image patch using only five qubits, which significantly reduces the qubit requirement when compared to NEQR, while still preserving high reconstruction accuracy.

Quantum Reports•Apr 22, 2026•0 citations

A Hybrid Quantum-Classical Framework for Saliency-Aware Medical Image Encoding

Vrushali Nikam, Trupti S. Atre, Lavanya Santhosh +2 more

Quantum image processing provides significant storage benefits over classical methods. However, current quantum image representation techniques exhibit limitations regarding encoding efficiency, circuit complexity, and adaptability to image content. This paper proposes Saliency-Aware Hybrid Quantum Image Representation (SAHQR), utilizing saliency detection for content-adaptive representation. It selectively focuses on salient regions, allocating quantum resources proportionally to visual importance, whereas existing techniques represent all regions uniformly.The proposed approach is evaluated against ten state-of-the-art quantum image representation techniques using ten criteria: number of qubits, circuit depth, gate complexity, encoding time, scalability, information loss, compression ratio, memory overhead, and implementation complexity Experimental results on 6097 medical images from the MINC database demonstrate that this work should be interpreted as a proof of concept for saliency-aware quantum encoding, rather than as a universally optimal representation.The evaluation is extended to 2000 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) tiles and 2298 Brain Tumor MRI scans to validate cross-domain generalization. Statistical significance tests (p < 0.001) confirm SAHQR yields statistically significant improvements over existing techniques across all three domains.

Quantum Reports•May 7, 2026•0 citations

Quantum Machine Learning in Medical Imaging: A Primer for Radiologists

Ruben Ortiz Cordero, Gaven K. Smart, Harshada Gothankar +3 more

Deep learning has transformed radiology, but the computational cost of training and deploying modern models is outpacing what classical hardware can support. Quantum computing has been proposed as one response to this bottleneck: an n-qubit system can represent $2^n$ states simultaneously, although practical speedups require efficient algorithms, data encoding, and measurement strategies rather than superposition alone. This review introduces radiologists to five core quantum concepts, qubits, superposition, entanglement, quantum gates, and quantum circuits, and to the superconducting, trapped-ion, and photonic hardware platforms that define the current noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) era. We then summarize the quantum machine learning architectures most often applied to medical imaging (quantum support vector machines, quantum neural networks, variational quantum circuits, and quantum convolutional neural networks) and quantum image representations such as the flexible representation of quantum images (FRQI) and the novel enhanced quantum representation (NEQR). Reported applications include brain tumor classification and segmentation on MRI, pneumonia detection on chest radiographs, skin and breast lesion classification, CT and PET reconstruction, and ultrasound denoising. Nearly all published systems are hybrid quantum-classical pipelines evaluated on small, downsampled benchmark datasets or simulators, and clinical deployment is not yet feasible. We conclude with current limitations and translational priorities for radiology.

quant-pharXiv:2610.32762•Oct 26, 2026•0 citations
Superposition, entanglement, and quantum parallelism can be utilized in Quantum Image Processing (QIP) as a promising paradigm for expediting large-scale visual computing workloads. However, the majority of existing content-agnostic Quantum Image Representation (QIR) models allocate an equal amount of computational resources to individual pixels, irrespective of their semantic significance. This approach poses particular challenges to Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) systems, especially in noise-sensitive applications such as medical imaging and maritime surveillance, where low coherence and noisy gates significantly constrain the achievable circuit depth. In order to apply dynamically local resource assignment conditions by the complexity of the image, this paper presents EBA-QR (Entropy-Based Adaptive Quantum Representation), a content- sensitive encoding scheme, which combines a local Shannon entropy scheme and quantum circuit synthesis. EBA-QR does not process the pixels as equals but divides the image into discrete blocks, calculates the number of pixels in each block, and the block entropy, then uses a threshold, which is adjustable, below which each block is considered to be part of Interest (ROI), or the background. In contrast to low- entropy background blocks, which are coded with gate-skipping algorithms to approximate a fixed cost of a gate per block, high- entropy blocks are coded with the NEQR-like basis-state accuracy. The total cost of preparation is proportional to the size of the regions of ROI, and a formal gate-cost optimization function can also be applied to work with a reduction of up to two orders of magnitude compared to NEQR in sparse sceneries without increasing the number of qubits. These benefits are observed to be the effect of entropy-directed gate allocation, not necessarily of classical masking by an Entropy-Based Mask (EBM) control of a NEQR +Mask control baseline that retains the normal NEQR circuit. There are three datasets that were applied as SAR ship detection imaging based on SSDD, brain tumor MRI scans, and so on. Images of Doha International Airport and ICEYE SAR are benchmarked and tested on 10 performance parameters. The development of Qiskit simulators is accomplished. Circuit and all graphics are downsampled to 32 x 32 so as to look NISQ-era. The findings indicate that EBA-QR possesses the fidelity of the level of NEQR in ROIs and is not prone to common aberrations of transform-based compression schemes, and by a maximum of 78.1 percent on sparse SAR sceneries, simplifying the complexity of gates. 64.7% on brain MRI. Moreover, EBA-QR consents that it is helpful. End to-End image processing system in the NISQ era and a successful building block in future quantum pipelines, edge detection, and medical diagnostics satellite monitoring to help in basic operations on images, like geometric transform, image flipping, and Sobel edge detection.
Abstract Quantum image representation constitutes a foundational component of quantum image processing; however, its practical deployment on Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) hardware is fundamentally constrained by the cost of quantum state preparation. Existing representations such as the Flexible Representation of Quantum Images (FRQI) and the Novel Enhanced Quantum Representation (NEQR) rely on uniform, full-resolution encoding strategies that incur rapidly increasing gate counts and circuit depths, leading to severe decoherence and error accumulation on near-term devices. These limitations are particularly pronounced for heterogeneous and information-sparse modalities such as medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR), where uniform pixel-wise encoding introduces substantial redundant state preparation. To address these constraints, we propose Adaptive Hybrid Quantum Image Representation (AHQIR), a saliency-driven selective quantum state-preparation framework designed for efficient encoding of medical and SAR imagery under NISQ limitations. AHQIR departs from global encoding by employing a classical adaptive preprocessing stage to identify diagnostically significant regions in MRI and dominant backscatter structures in SAR images using a statistical thresholding criterion, thereby restricting quantum encoding to a salient pixel subset S. The quantum realization of AHQIR integrates Perception-Aided Encoding (PE) and Coherent-Size Encoding (CE) mechanisms, which condition state preparation on salient pixel coordinates and eliminate the requirement for power-of-two image padding. As a result, circuit depth and multi-qubit gate count scale with the number of salient pixels rather than total image size, enabling physically realizable circuits within current coherence limits. This selective and intentionally lossy design sacrifices global pixel-level fidelity in non-salient regions in order to preserve semantic and structural fidelity within regions of interest. AHQIR is evaluated against multiple state-of-the-art quantum image encoding schemes, including FRQI and NEQR, across Brain Tumor MRI and real-world SAR datasets. Experimental results demonstrate substantial reductions in gate count and improved robustness under realistic noise models, while maintaining reconstruction errors below clinically and analytically relevant thresholds for salient regions. These findings indicate that saliency-aware, selective state preparation offers a practical and scalable pathway for quantum.
Abstract Quantum Image Representation (QIR) is a fundamental concept in quantum image processing. It describes how classical images are converted into quantum states for processing on quantum computers. Researchers proposed several QIR models, with FRQI and NEQR being the most popular ones. These models show the possibilities of the quantum image encoding. Nevertheless, they are also limited in some way. Mostly, pixel intensity accuracy, the required number of qubits, and circuit complexity have trade-offs. Their application to Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) devices becomes challenging, the quantum resources being small in such devices, due to this. In the following paper, we introduce our own approach, which is the Intensity-Preserving Quantum image Representation (IP-QIR). The key aim of IP-QIR is to maintain the information about the grayscale intensities and decrease the amount of quantum resources. IP-QIR quantifies pixel intensities by a controlled rotation scheme. The measurement statistics of a single qubit hold the intensity information and the position qubits represent the spatial information. The strategy uses small patches of images rather than complete images to make it easy to implement. This will decrease the depth of circuit design and makes the approach less advanced to the near-term quantum hardware. IBM Qiskit simulations are used in assessing the performance of IP-QIR. The three types of grayscale images of which experiments are run are the synthetic image patches, SAR images and medical TB chest X-ray images. It is revealed that IP-QIR maintains the intensity information compared to the FRQI and NEQR. SAR and medical data can reach values of fidelity of 84.12\%. The other notable point is that the size of a 4 x 4 image patch only needs five qubits which are much lower than in NEQR. Meanwhile, good reconstruction accuracy is achieved. These findings demonstrate the fact that IP-QIR is an effective and realistic approach to quantum image representation on the NISQ-era quantum devices.
Abstract The Quantum Image Representation (QIR) remains one of the most significant challenges in Quantum Image Processing (QIP) and Quantum Machine Learning (QML) with the resource constraints required by Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) hardware. Currently available pixel representation schemes, such as Flexible Representation of Quantum Images (FRQI) and Novel Enhanced Quantum Representation (NEQR), typically have circuit depth and the number of required qubits that grow with image resolution, rendering them impractical for large-scale images. To alleviate these limitations, we propose the Qubit-Efficient and Resolution-Independent Quantum Image Representation (QRISP), a compact, feature-aware encoding framework that is resource-efficient while preserving discriminative information for classification. The proposed approach divides an image into a user-configurable number of non-overlapping blocks, stores complementary statistical descriptors such as mean intensity, local variance, dominant gradient orientation, and calculates the same descriptors using a series of parameterized rotation gates in a quantum feature register; a position register is used to store block indices, and a lightweight entanglement layer is used to store the feature correlations. One of the major features of QRISP is the resolution-independent quantum circuit structure of quantum resources, which depend on the block configuration rather than the image size, allowing flexible processing and trade-offs between representation fidelity and qubit complexity. Experimental results with the MNIST and Fashion-MNIST datasets for the case of Quantum Support Vector Machine (QSVM) and Quantum Neural Network (QNN) pipelines show significant improvement in the number of gates and depth of the circuits, as well as in the time for computing the kernel, without compromising the classification results from FRQI and NEQR, with respect to which their performance is competitive. This shows their potential for scalable, NISQ-oriented quantum image processing.
Quantum image representation (QIR) is the basic idea behind quantum image processing. It explains how a normal image is converted into quantum states so that it can be processed using quantum computers. The commonly used models for QIR are Flexible Representation of Quantum Images (FRQIs) and Novel Enhanced Quantum Representation (NEQR). Though these approaches highlight the potential of quantum-based image encoding, the limitation of practical applicability on Noisy Intermediate-Scale Quantum (NISQ) devices exists. In this paper, we propose an intensity-preserving quantum image representation (IP-QIR) scheme that aims to maintain accurate grayscale intensity information while significantly reducing quantum resource usage. The proposed method employs a controlled rotation-based encoding strategy, where pixel intensities are embedded into the measurement probability of a single intensity qubit, and spatial information is represented using position qubits. To further enhance feasibility on near-term quantum hardware, the framework operates on small image patches instead of full-resolution images, thereby reducing circuit depth and overall complexity. The performance of the proposed IP-QIR approach is evaluated through IBM Qiskit simulations on three types of grayscale images: synthetic image patches, synthetic aperture radar (SAR) images, and medical tuberculosis (TB) chest X-ray images. Experimental results demonstrate that IP-QIR achieves better intensity preservation than FRQIs and NEQR, with fidelity values reaching up to 84.12% for both SAR and medical datasets. In addition, IP-QIR represents a 4×4 image patch using only five qubits, which significantly reduces the qubit requirement when compared to NEQR, while still preserving high reconstruction accuracy.
Quantum image processing provides significant storage benefits over classical methods. However, current quantum image representation techniques exhibit limitations regarding encoding efficiency, circuit complexity, and adaptability to image content. This paper proposes Saliency-Aware Hybrid Quantum Image Representation (SAHQR), utilizing saliency detection for content-adaptive representation. It selectively focuses on salient regions, allocating quantum resources proportionally to visual importance, whereas existing techniques represent all regions uniformly.The proposed approach is evaluated against ten state-of-the-art quantum image representation techniques using ten criteria: number of qubits, circuit depth, gate complexity, encoding time, scalability, information loss, compression ratio, memory overhead, and implementation complexity Experimental results on 6097 medical images from the MINC database demonstrate that this work should be interpreted as a proof of concept for saliency-aware quantum encoding, rather than as a universally optimal representation.The evaluation is extended to 2000 Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) tiles and 2298 Brain Tumor MRI scans to validate cross-domain generalization. Statistical significance tests (p < 0.001) confirm SAHQR yields statistically significant improvements over existing techniques across all three domains.
Deep learning has transformed radiology, but the computational cost of training and deploying modern models is outpacing what classical hardware can support. Quantum computing has been proposed as one response to this bottleneck: an n-qubit system can represent 2n2^n2n states simultaneously, although practical speedups require efficient algorithms, data encoding, and measurement strategies rather than superposition alone. This review introduces radiologists to five core quantum concepts, qubits, superposition, entanglement, quantum gates, and quantum circuits, and to the superconducting, trapped-ion, and photonic hardware platforms that define the current noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) era. We then summarize the quantum machine learning architectures most often applied to medical imaging (quantum support vector machines, quantum neural networks, variational quantum circuits, and quantum convolutional neural networks) and quantum image representations such as the flexible representation of quantum images (FRQI) and the novel enhanced quantum representation (NEQR). Reported applications include brain tumor classification and segmentation on MRI, pneumonia detection on chest radiographs, skin and breast lesion classification, CT and PET reconstruction, and ultrasound denoising. Nearly all published systems are hybrid quantum-classical pipelines evaluated on small, downsampled benchmark datasets or simulators, and clinical deployment is not yet feasible. We conclude with current limitations and translational priorities for radiology.