China has prioritized quantum science and technology as a critical frontier for its national security and development. To date, Chinese research has already reached a leading position within the discipline, enabled by state support and funding, as well as the recruitment and cultivation of talent. The rapid advances on this front can provide a valuable illustration of the dynamics of China’s evolving innovation ecosystem, including the increased prominence of leading technology companies, and even start-ups, as serious contenders. China’s strategy of military–civil fusion, which aims to create a more integrated ecosystem in science and technology, can contribute to enabling progress in dual-use developments. This case study draws upon the shared framework for this special issue, which provides a method by which to consider the factors that enable defense innovation. Looking forward, these advances could prove consequential for the future strategic balance between China and the United States.
China has prioritized quantum science and technology as a critical frontier for its national security and development. To date, Chinese research has already reached a leading position within the discipline, enabled by state support and funding, as well as the recruitment and cultivation of talent. The rapid advances on this front can provide a valuable illustration of the dynamics of China’s evolving innovation ecosystem, including the increased prominence of leading technology companies, and even start-ups, as serious contenders. China’s strategy of military–civil fusion, which aims to create a more integrated ecosystem in science and technology, can contribute to enabling progress in dual-use developments. This case study draws upon the shared framework for this special issue, which provides a method by which to consider the factors that enable defense innovation. Looking forward, these advances could prove consequential for the future strategic balance between China and the United States.
This article examines the intensifying strategic competition between the United States and China across three interrelated domains of quantum technology: quantum computing, quantum sensing, and quantum communications. Drawing on a qualitative comparative case-study methodology and engaging with theoretical frameworks of techno-nationalism, great-power competition, and military innovation, the article argues that quantum technologies have transcended their origins as instruments of scientific discovery and are now emerging as critical vectors of national power. Quantum capabilities hold the potential to compromise existing encryption architectures, transform battlefield intelligence and surveillance, revolutionise secure command-and-control communications, and render certain conventional deterrent postures strategically vulnerable. The article analyses the strategic investments, institutional ecosystems, and policy architectures through which both states are mobilising quantum capabilities, and it assesses the implications for military advantage, nuclear deterrence, and strategic stability. It concludes that the quantum race introduces new forms of uncertainty and instability into an already fraught great-power relationship, and that the absence of governance mechanisms or confidence-building measures in this domain represents a significant gap in international security architecture. The article contributes to the growing literature on emerging technology and strategic competition by offering a comprehensive comparative assessment of quantum power in the context of U.S.-China rivalry.
Policy brief no.15 written within the Reconnect China Horizon Europe project deals with the intensifying global race to harness quantum science. Recognizing the strategic potential of quantum technology for economic, military, and scientific advancement, China is focusing on quantum breakthroughs as a way to shift the balance of power, especially in its competition with the United States. President Xi Jinping has emphasized the importance of scientific innovation, particularly in quantum fields, to fuel national development and ensure security. Chinese researchers, led by figures like Pan Jianwei, have made significant strides in quantum communication and computing. China is particularly advanced in quantum communication, building secure networks that use quantum key distribution (QKD), which is virtually unhackable. China has also launched quantum satellites, like Mozi and Jinan-1, to bolster its space-ground quantum network. Despite its achievements, China may face challenges in keeping up with competitors. The quantum industry lacks robust private investment and relies heavily on state support, while geopolitical tensions, particularly with the U.S., risk isolating China from essential technologies. The coming decade will be crucial as China continues to navigate these obstacles in its quest for quantum supremacy. Policy recommendations: Given the strategic reach and military potential of quantum technologies, and given the central role of the Party and state in the quantum industry in China, any European partnership with and investment in China should be scrutinized carefully Europe must keep up with quantum application developments and standardization so that it does not entirely rely on technology and norms developed by foreign powers in the future Europe may play a constructive role in preventing the fragmentation of norms between the US and China The policy brief is complemented by the relevant infographic (10.5281/zenodo.22555953).
Quantum technologies are rapidly moving from scientific research into the arenas of commercialisation and strategic competition, with significant implications for defence and security. While their full military impact may unfold over time, developments in quantum sensing, computing, and communications are already shaping national strategies, industrial ecosystems, and future capability planning. The growing competition among major technological powers highlights the need to act on both the opportunities and risks associated with quantum technologies. Quantum technologies have the potential to enhance military capabilities across domains, from resilient positioning, navigation, and timing to advanced sensing, computing, and secure communications. At the same time, they introduce new vulnerabilities, including risks to current cryptographic systems, supply chains, and technological dependencies. For NATO, the debate is therefore no longer whether quantum technologies matter, but how quickly the Alliance can adopt, operationalise, and secure them before strategic competitors gain asymmetric advantages. This article argues that NATO must pursue a two-track approach: first, fostering quantum innovation, experimentation, and operational adoption across the Alliance; and second, protecting its technological edge, supply chains, critical infrastructure, and security interests against emerging quantum-enabled threats. Achieving a quantum-ready Alliance will require close cooperation among Allies, industry, academia, and NATO entities to translate technological progress into secure and operationally relevant capabilities.
Quantum technologies constitute a major area of interest with real issues leading to new disruptive applications. Their mastery will give their designers a definite advantage, whether in the fields of communications, health, security, energy, space, the environment, etc. The United States, China, Europe, India and many other countries are opening research programs and promote investments with a view to acquiring certain technological sovereignty. My previous paper briefly exposed quantum technologies. In this new paper, after a reminder of the strategic context, the application domains of quantum computing, with some examples in the defense and security sectors, are presented. Elements of analysis of existing investments and ecosystems are presented. The images or figures in the article are the property of their cited authors. References are given at the end of each chapter.
K SC The convergence of quantum computing and artificial intelligence represents one of the most consequential technological developments of the twenty-first century. This fourth volume examines the distinct yet interconnected trajectories of quantum-AI integration in three leading powers: the United States, China, and Germany. Through comparative analysis of national strategies, research ecosystems, industrial policy, and geopolitical positioning, the paper identifies three distinct models of convergence: the market-driven, defence-oriented model of the United States; the state-directed, civil-military fusion model of China; and the collaborative, standards-focused, and ethically oriented model of Germany within the European Union framework. These models are not merely technical choices but reflect deeper differences in political economy, epistemic cultures, and visions of global order. The analysis concludes with reflections on the implications of this tri-polar dynamic for smaller and middle powers, including the Global South, and outlines principles for more inclusive and stable quantum-AI governance. Also available on Academia.edu: https://www.academia.edu/attachments/133209089/download_file?s=portfolio