Twin physics is a new physical model, in which the basic features of quantum mechanics and relativity theory are combined to a manageable description, reaching from sub-atomic to astronomic phenomena and so creating a bridge between large- and smallscale phenomena. This is obtained by using the Heisenberg principle, the definition of complementarity by Jammer and the ideas of Einstein. The used formalism is fully complementary, developed on the concept that each phenomenon has determinate as well as indeterminate aspects, being mutually independent. These aspects occur joined in nature, in such a manner that one of both dominates an observation and the other acts as a small disturbance. Some illustrative examples from everyday life will be given. The basic item is the Heisenberg-unit (H-unit), defined as a constant amount of potential energy and supplied with complementary attributes of time, space, and charge. Only by interaction between two H-units, their potential energy can be transformed into physical items. The resulting phenomena can be described in an easily accessible geometric way. Applying the formulation to all kind of possible interactions between H-units, descriptions of a series of elementary particles as well as the four forces of nature, neutron decay and gravitational waves are obtained.
The most surprising result is the appearance of four types of electrons, having features being unknown in classical physics. In this lecture we focus upon two of them, having no mass and a short-range magnetic field around. After an introduction of twin physics without going deep into the theoretical basics, their features are explained in detail. These types of electrons are supposed to provide nanomaterial’s with conductivity much higher than known from classical experiments; also, they are expected to reveal hidden mechanisms in chemistry.
Twin physics is a new physical model, in which the basic features of quantum mechanics and relativity theory are combined to a manageable description, reaching from sub-atomic to astronomic phenomena and so creating a bridge between large- and smallscale phenomena. This is obtained by using the Heisenberg principle, the definition of complementarity by Jammer and the ideas of Einstein. The used formalism is fully complementary, developed on the concept that each phenomenon has determinate as well as indeterminate aspects, being mutually independent. These aspects occur joined in nature, in such a manner that one of both dominates an observation and the other acts as a small disturbance. Some illustrative examples from everyday life will be given. The basic item is the Heisenberg-unit (H-unit), defined as a constant amount of potential energy and supplied with complementary attributes of time, space, and charge. Only by interaction between two H-units, their potential energy can be transformed into physical items. The resulting phenomena can be described in an easily accessible geometric way. Applying the formulation to all kind of possible interactions between H-units, descriptions of a series of elementary particles as well as the four forces of nature, neutron decay and gravitational waves are obtained.
The most surprising result is the appearance of four types of electrons, having features being unknown in classical physics. In this lecture we focus upon two of them, having no mass and a short-range magnetic field around. After an introduction of twin physics without going deep into the theoretical basics, their features are explained in detail. These types of electrons are supposed to provide nanomaterial’s with conductivity much higher than known from classical experiments; also, they are expected to reveal hidden mechanisms in chemistry.
Twin physics is a unification theory, based upon the mathematical definition of complementarity, in which physical phenomena are described as entangled appearances of certainty and uncertainty. Experimental results of quantum mechanics, the view of Heisenberg and relativity theory of Einstein are incorporated. Physical descriptions on a quantum-mechanical scale as well as an astronomical scale can be reconciled by considering them in that way. Applying twin physics, more insight has been gained into fundamental phenomena, known as the four forces of nature, as well as elementary particles and spaces; new insights emerge in the fields of nanophysics, optics, magnetism and astronomy. These results gave rise to the idea generalizing the mathematical structure of twin physics to a much broader so-called ‘twin view’, applicable to phenomena in general, for instance the commercial traffic. In the twin view, some kind of unit for the considered phenomenon in general has to be selected, as well as a few characteristic qualities to describe the interaction between these units. For each quality, a set of four elements has to be defined, two by two being complementary. Each pair has to contain a determinate item, describing ‘certainty’, and an indeterminate one, describing ‘uncertainty'. Moreover, one pair has to be of major importance and the other pair of minor importance. As an example, the construction of these sets in twin physics is shown. Special attention is paid to finding indeterminate items, as science is historically mainly oriented to determinate items. Finally, by defining suitable operators, the theory can be applied in a relatively easy way.
Special relativity is a fascinating and challenging branch of physics. It describes the physics of the high velocity/high energy regime, frequently turning up phenomena that appear paradoxical in view of our everyday experience. In this book we will be quite selective in our presentation of the theory of special relativity: we will concentrate on those features that we consider necessary for the later applications to relativistic quantum chemistry. We do this in good conscience, knowing that there is a vast literature on the subject, catering to a wide range of audiences—from the quite elementary to the very sophisticated. A few examples are listed in the reference list, but a visit to any nearby physics library will provide an ample selection of reading material for those wishing to delve deeper into the matter. In the present chapter we adopt a minimalist approach. We develop some of the basic concepts and formulas of special relativity, building on a rather elementary level of basic physics. The aim is to provide a sufficient foundation for those who want to proceed as quickly as possible to the more quantum chemical parts of the text. In later chapters we will introduce more advanced tools of physics and revisit some of the subjects treated here. The theory of special relativity deals with the description of physical phenomena in frames that move at constant velocity relative to each other. The classroom is one such frame, the car passing at constant speed outside the classroom is another. The trajectory of a ball being thrown up vertically in the car will look quite different whether we describe it relative to the interior of the car or relative to the interior of the classroom. In particular we will be concerned with inertial frames. We define an inertial frame as a frame where spatial relations are Euclidean and where there is a universal time such that free particles move with constant velocities. In classical Newtonian mechanics, relations between the spatial parameters and time in two inertial frames S and S’ are expressed in terms of the Galilean transformations.
A theory with a simple physical model gives logical and reasonable answers to all the strange phenomena and difficult-to-understand problems in modern physics, from the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics QM, and up to the field of cosmology. It is a theory suitable for explaining phenomena from small particles to large bodies such as stars, galaxies, and the entire universe. In this article, we will define in an innovative manner how space-time is seen and we will give a different graphical representation to the special theory of relativity. We will show how the Lorentz transformation equations and the space-time interval are obtained from it, how light behaves in space-time, and according to it, how to obtain relativistic Doppler formulas. The most important thing in this article is that just as two bodies can be in two different times, according to the theory of relativity, they can also be simultaneously in two different locations. According to it, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and quantum superposition can be explained. We will present for the first time a very common physical phenomenon, but unknown up to this day, which we will call "leap set". According to it, we will logically and deterministically explain the double-slit experiment of electrons and we will show that the result of the experiment is not a wave interference because the electron does not pass through the slits, but it performs a leap set to possible locations on the screen. Also, according to the same model, we will see the conditions and reasons for quantum entanglement and how it is obtained. We will also show the expansion of the universe and Hubble's law according to this theory and model, the Casimir effect as a cosmological phenomenon. We will discuss the possibility of the existence of a mirror world completely identical to our world, located at a distance of 2x13.8Gly in the space-time and we will prove that the material mass energy of the universe is zero.
The more scientists learned about the atom, the less categorical became the questions they put to nature. The uncertainty relation is a strict law of nature, which is in no way related to some imperfections of our devices. The uncertainty relation is directly opposed to intuition and everyday experience. Heisenberg explained the matter by discarding still another idealization of classical physics — the concept of observation. It turned out that in quantum mechanics it had to be revised, along with the concept of motion. The concepts of “phenomenon”, “measurement”, and “observation” are closely related to one another but they are by no means identical. Any measurement is essentially interaction between the instrument and the object to be studied. The principle that Bohr named complementarity is one of the most fundamental philosophical and scientific ideas of our time, which can only be compared to the principle of relativity and the concept of a physical field.
Introduction I give in this chapter the quantum-mechanical description of an atom. I look in some detail at the hydrogen atom, which is the simplest atom we have, with just one proton and one electron. From the picture that emerges, we shall be able to see how to describe all other atoms. Before continuing, I need to explain what I mean when I say that the proton and electron have equal and opposite electric charges. It is because of these charges that the atom is stable, and does not spontaneously break up into the two separate particles. Electric charge and potential energy If I take a ball in my hand and then let go, it drops to the floor. This is because of the gravitational interaction between the ball and the earth. The ball had gravitational potential energy when I held it, and when I release it, this energy is progressively converted to kinetic energy as it falls. Gravitation makes two bodies move towards each other, and not away from each other: the gravitational force is always attractive. As a result of many experiments done over the years, we find that there is another kind of force in nature, somewhat analogous to, but in one aspect different from, gravitation. I take two idealized examples, and use them to show the features of this force. First I consider two electrons that I imagine to be pinned down a distance r apart.
Chapter 3 provides a brief review of a few concepts from classical Newtonian physics, and how this fails to explain phenomena at the nanoscopic scale. As is detailed within, the classical mechanical model is able to describe all observed physical phenomena; however, when it comes to the nanoscale this model breaks down, because the properties of the materials change dramatically. At this scale, the surface-to-volume ratio increases, gravitational forces become negligible and random molecular motion becomes more important. This changes the properties of the material and affects the devices that are fabricated at this scale. It is hence necessary to develop a new model that can explain such physical phenomena. This has led to a new branch of physics, i.e. quantum physics (QP) or quantum mechanics, which is able to explain the behavior observed at nanoscale. QP enables us to explain phenomena such as the photoelectric effect, Compton effect. etc. In this chapter, we introduce quantum mechanics and how it evolved in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Further, light’s behaviour as a particle as well as a wave is described by the photoelectric effect and Young’s double-slit experiment, respectively. Further, the dual nature of the particle is explained using the de Broglie principle. Schrodinger’s equation is then explained, which gives the probability of finding a subatomic-scale particle at a certain position in a quantum well. In addition to the formulation of Schrodinger’s equation, its solution, the concept of a potential well, the characteristics of the wave function and its interpretation and significance, and, finally, the application of Schrodinger’s equation in the structure of an atom form subsequent parts of this chapter. The equation serves as a basis with which to understand band theory. Band theory explains the difference between conductors, insulators and semiconductors. Materials are distinguished according to the differences in their band gaps. Adding impurities or varying temperature changes the band gap in semiconductors, which consequently changes the properties of the semiconductor and its electrical conduction. One more important measure to understand and exploit the properties and behaviour of materials is Fermi–Dirac statistics. It is useful to acquire the probability of electrons at a given energy level at a specific temperature. These concepts can be utilised by physicists and chip makers to make more energy-efficient devices. Hence, this chapter details the fundamentals of quantum physics and how they relate to the electrical properties of nanodevices.