Problem: Superposition and entanglement are coherent effects, which can be quantified by quantum mechanics (QM), but lack descriptive explanations. They are typically analysed with inequality methods, and the results favour QM and reject physical realism and hidden-variable solutions. In particular, Colbeck & Renner (2011) showed that no extension of quantum theory can exist with better predictive power than quantum mechanics itself. Purpose: The purpose here is to critically evaluate from a conceptual and philosophical perspective the ontological underpinnings of the inequality approach. The current work is speculative in nature as it is based on a conjectured non-local hidden-variable (NLHV) design for particles, and does not yet have a mathematical formalism. Nonetheless this is worth attempting for the philosophical questions it poses about the nature of reality, and the pointers it gives to possible future directions in fundamental physics. Findings: The premises of the C & R proof (that particles are points, that locality exists, that quantum theory is correct) are inconsistent, hence invalidate its conclusion. We also show that superposition and entanglement may be qualitatively explained if particles were to have the internal structure proposed by the Cordus NLHV theory. Originality: The ability to explain superposition and entanglement conceptually in terms of physical realism is relevant because it rebuts the claim that it is impossible that such a hidden-variable theory could exist. This is significant because previously it has been believed that these phenomena are explainable by QM only.
Problem: Superposition and entanglement are coherent effects, which can be quantified by quantum mechanics (QM), but lack descriptive explanations. They are typically analysed with inequality methods, and the results favour QM and reject physical realism and hidden-variable solutions. In particular, Colbeck & Renner (2011) showed that no extension of quantum theory can exist with better predictive power than quantum mechanics itself. Purpose: The purpose here is to critically evaluate from a conceptual and philosophical perspective the ontological underpinnings of the inequality approach. The current work is speculative in nature as it is based on a conjectured non-local hidden-variable (NLHV) design for particles, and does not yet have a mathematical formalism. Nonetheless this is worth attempting for the philosophical questions it poses about the nature of reality, and the pointers it gives to possible future directions in fundamental physics. Findings: The premises of the C & R proof (that particles are points, that locality exists, that quantum theory is correct) are inconsistent, hence invalidate its conclusion. We also show that superposition and entanglement may be qualitatively explained if particles were to have the internal structure proposed by the Cordus NLHV theory. Originality: The ability to explain superposition and entanglement conceptually in terms of physical realism is relevant because it rebuts the claim that it is impossible that such a hidden-variable theory could exist. This is significant because previously it has been believed that these phenomena are explainable by QM only.
Abstract Quantum theory has accounted for a wide range of physical effects in systems ranging from microscopic to macroscopic. However, it is associated with various paradoxes—such as the well-known EPR example. Einstein’s suggestion that the theory was incomplete has led to numerous attempts to underpin quantum theory by a hidden variable theory, including the Bell approach. This approach was originally based on certain assumptions: (i) realism (ii) locality and (iii) non-contextuality. In its developed form, the theory involved only probabilities for outcome values of system observables. For systems involving two sub-systems, the hidden variable theory predicted that correlations between measurement outcomes of observable pairs of from different sub-systems would satisfy certain—such as the CHSH Bell inequality. The inequality was inconsistent with quantum theory predictions and with experiment. Hence, the question arose: Which of the three assumptions was invalid? A widely held view is that a non-local theory is needed—another is that hidden variable theory should be contextual. In this article, derivations of the CHSH Bell inequality based on various combinations of locality/non-locality and non-contextuality/contextuality assumptions are outlined, leading to the conclusion that for a hidden variable theory to underpin quantum theory, it must be both non-local and contextual. Non-locality or contextuality alone is insufficient. However, it is also concluded that the realism assumption is questionable. At present an alternative approach of augmenting quantum theory by adding additional features—such as the deterministic trajectories of Bohmian mechanics (also a non-local theory) may be a better route for completeness.
The mainstream interpretation of quantum entanglement and its derivative phenomena has long relied on concepts such as non-locality and superposition, leading to a lack of dynamical mechanism description for wave function collapse and creating profound conflicts with physical causality. This paper, based on the "Great Tao Model" and its "Existence Field Theory," proposes a systematic and unified interpretation of quantum entanglement phenomena, exemplified by the experiments recognized by the 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics. First, it analyzes the erroneous presuppositions in the derivation of Bell's inequality based on Existence Field Theory and establishes a general classical interpretation framework grounded in "static initial correlations" and "local interactions." Subsequently, through a classical physical reconstruction of milestone experiments such as Aspect's, it demonstrates that this framework is sufficient to explain all observed phenomena self-consistently, without introducing "non-local superluminal action." Building on this, the paper successfully extends this interpretative framework to core quantum phenomena such as quantum decoherence, teleportation, and many-body entanglement, revealing that they also originate from classical conservation law constraints and local field interactions. Furthermore, this paper compares the Great Tao Model with hidden variable theories, finding that although both belong to the classical realism camp and oppose non-locality, the Great Tao Model requires no introduction of any hidden variables. Instead, it explains phenomena directly based on the specific physical properties (charge, mass) of elementary particles and the local dynamics of their existence fields, thus providing a more physically realistic and unified theoretical framework. This study offers a unified, causality-compliant classical explanation for a series of quantum phenomena claimed to exhibit "non-locality," fundamentally challenging the conceptual foundation of related quantum information technologies and providing a new path for physics to return to a theoretical paradigm based on realism, locality, and clear dynamical mechanisms.
This work develops a deterministic, field-based reformulation of quantum mechanics in which entanglement arises naturally from correlated hidden variables, directly realizing Einstein’s prediction. Fermions are modeled as coupled real fields whose internal oscillatory phases provide a physical ontology for spin, interference, and charge. The model yields the standard −cosθ correlation law in the uniform-phase limit, while predicting a small deterministic correction C( θ )=−cosθ+ε sin 2 θ with ε≈0.06 . This deviation is benchmarked against historic and modern Bell tests, showing it is not excluded but lies within the sensitivity of angle-resolved experiments. Thus, the work provides a realist, experimentally testable account of entanglement, aligning with Einstein’s vision of hidden variables. Experimental deviation between the quantum mechanics model to our real coupled-fields model is expected to be of order ε=0.06 . The model provides unique experimental predictions—a finite offset at symmetry points (e.g. Δ = 45˚) not explained by noise or reduced visibility. This work examines the violation of Bell’s inequality through the lens of the Coupled-Fields model. While standard quantum mechanics attributes these results to nonlocal entanglement, the Coupled-Fields framework reproduces the same correlations through deterministic, local interactions between the internal variables of the coupled strings. Each fermion pair shares an intrinsic phase relationship established at creation, which governs measurement outcomes without requiring instantaneous influence. Statistical violation of Bell’s inequality thus reflects the geometry of internal field orientations rather than true nonlocality. This analysis reconciles experimental data with physical realism, demonstrating that local hidden variables—when properly defined within the coupled-fields structure—can reproduce the full quantum correlation pattern. Our conclusion is that Einstein (EPR) [1] was right. Internal phase is the hidden variable.
Abstract Quantum states in superposition cannot be observed, suggesting that they merely embody information on possible measurement results. Yet, we think of them as describing physical systems that evolve in time according to given mathematical equations. Furthermore, evolution takes place in physical space-time, and local causality is imposed on space-time by Special Relativity (a sequence of cause and effect that constitutes a fundamental principle by which we think about and do scientific work). It is therefore strange that there is non–locality and violation of causality embedded in Quantum Mechanics. We try to give here a first step to see whether a deterministic and local interpretation is possible. We will show that Bell’s inequality is not conclusive about the non–local nature of Quantum Mechanics, in that there exists an interpretation of reality (which we put forward) which is local and in which Bell’s inequality cannot be derived. Assuming determinism and locality a new Bell-like inequality is derived, which is always satisfied by Quantum Mechanics and which allows for local hidden variables [1].
Local realism reduces to the proposition that local determinate reality is the necessary and sufficient cause of every physical effect. By any standard account, quantum theory requires that local realism is false, because it embeds the famously spooky premise that some physical effects require causes that are instantly effective from arbitrarily far away. Nonetheless, quantum theory has replaced local realism as the foundation of science because, whereas local realism allegedly cannot violate the Bell inequality, quantum theory is taken to do so in accord with experiments. Here we prove, however, that an epistemic contextual model of local realism solves a puzzle about independent random measurements of local hidden variables in a way that causally explains observed Bell violations. We also reveal exactly how the Bell inequality fails to represent the local realistic prediction. Finally, we show that any theory that denies local realism comprises an unfalsifiable causal claim that is freely adjustable to make arbitrary predictions, which thus provide no validation of its causal claim. Results revitalize the hypothesis that local realism prevails. Keywords: Local Realism. Bell Violations. Photons. Entanglement. Quantum Physics.
Quantum mechanics (QM) has the problem of lacking a coherent conceptual foundation, even if its quantitative algorithms are functionally adequate. This paper appraises the conceptual logic beneath quantum mechanics, using as the point of reference a novel alternative conceptual framework called the cordus conjecture. If the cordus conjecture is correct then the comparison suggests that quantum mechanics is conceptually fallacious in several areas: (1) Particles need not be zero-dimensional points after all. (2) Bell�s theorem is refuted as being not universally applicable, and the principle of locality also fails. (3) The wavefunction is a mathematical approximation of a deeper reality, and superposition is not a physical state. (4) Superposition confounds positional and causal (temporal) variability, and this causes the weirdness of the QM interpretations. (5) Cordus identifies the factors that cause decoherence and (6) explains why quantum mechanics does not scale up to macroscopic objects. (7) It is fallacious to consider fields and particles as independent phenomena. Instead they are closely coupled in the cordus, and this explains the measurement context. Several core principles of QM are thereby refuted. The paradox of Schr�dinger�s Cat is explained as an artefact of these flawed premises. The paper also explains why the mathematical machinery of quantum mechanics is a reasonable approximation to reality, even if the concepts are not. The mathematics works, at least within a certain scale-range where: (a) things look like particles and the proposed cordus structure is not evident (i.e. not too small) and (b) where body-coherence is attainable (i.e. not too large). Outside of that range quantum mechanics seems neither conceptually nor mathematically relevant. The same analysis predicts QM is unlikely to scale down to the next deeper level of physics. The implications are that QM is profoundly deficient in its conceptual foundations, and is only an approximation of a deeper and more logically consistent mechanics.