PROBLEM- There are many integration problems of fundamental physics that still lack ontologically coherent solutions. NEED- There is a need to find a new theory of physics with wide-ranging logical consistency. The idea that particles could have internal structure has long been a consideration in the development of theories of physics, as evidenced in the EPR criticism (Einstein, Podolsky, & Rosen, 1935). DIFFICULTY- However Local hidden-variable solutions are excluded by the Bell-type inequalities and by the empirical evidence of entanglement. The non-local hidden-variable (NLHV) sector is not entirely excluded on theoretical grounds. However, if any solution existed it would have to be counterintuitive as all the obvious candidates have been excluded [4]. Unfortunately the hidden-variable sector has proved incapable of offering suitable solutions. APPROACH- Conceptual design methods were borrowed from engineering design and applied to create an initial conjectural solution for the double-slit device. This was then validated against multiple other phenomena. RESULTS- This paper offers a candidate solution, in the form of a new theory of physics wherein particles have internal structures. This Cordus theory proposes a specific structure for particles, for both the structure internal to the particle and the nature of the external discrete field emissions. FINDINGS- It also has good external construct validity, as it: explains path dilemmas in interferometers; recovers basic laws of optics from first principles (reflection, refraction, Brewster’s angle); identifies the causes of contextual measurement; explains the transition from coherence to discoherence; explains pair-production and annihilation; offers a solution to the asymmetrical baryogenesis and leptogenesis problems; explains time dilation; conceptually unifies the electro-magneto-gravitational forces with the strong interaction; explains the selective spin attributes of the neutrino species; predicts the internal structure of the atomic nucleus and explains the stability, instability and non-existence of the table of nuclides from Hydrogen to Neon. ORGINALITY- The Cordus theory is a novel conceptual framework for fundamental physics. It shows that a specific structure of particles has excellent explanatory power for many phenomena. The strengths of the theory are: Explanatory (ontological) power; Coherent solution across multiple phenomena; Offers candidate solutions to otherwise intractable problems. IMPLICATIONS- The Bell-type inequalities are falsified. Physical realism is re-asserted. The stochastic nature of the wave-function is subsumed in a deeper explanation. The theory is not inimical to quantum mechanics, which it reinterprets as a stochastic approximation of a deeper determinism. The new theory has philosophical implications because it shows that it is possible to conceive of a solution for fundamental physics that is grounded in physical realism. The theory therefore rebuts the idea that the deeper level of physics is purely mathematical, and it rejects the many-worlds interpretation.
PROBLEM- There are many integration problems of fundamental physics that still lack ontologically coherent solutions. NEED- There is a need to find a new theory of physics with wide-ranging logical consistency. The idea that particles could have internal structure has long been a consideration in the development of theories of physics, as evidenced in the EPR criticism (Einstein, Podolsky, & Rosen, 1935). DIFFICULTY- However Local hidden-variable solutions are excluded by the Bell-type inequalities and by the empirical evidence of entanglement. The non-local hidden-variable (NLHV) sector is not entirely excluded on theoretical grounds. However, if any solution existed it would have to be counterintuitive as all the obvious candidates have been excluded [4]. Unfortunately the hidden-variable sector has proved incapable of offering suitable solutions. APPROACH- Conceptual design methods were borrowed from engineering design and applied to create an initial conjectural solution for the double-slit device. This was then validated against multiple other phenomena. RESULTS- This paper offers a candidate solution, in the form of a new theory of physics wherein particles have internal structures. This Cordus theory proposes a specific structure for particles, for both the structure internal to the particle and the nature of the external discrete field emissions. FINDINGS- It also has good external construct validity, as it: explains path dilemmas in interferometers; recovers basic laws of optics from first principles (reflection, refraction, Brewster’s angle); identifies the causes of contextual measurement; explains the transition from coherence to discoherence; explains pair-production and annihilation; offers a solution to the asymmetrical baryogenesis and leptogenesis problems; explains time dilation; conceptually unifies the electro-magneto-gravitational forces with the strong interaction; explains the selective spin attributes of the neutrino species; predicts the internal structure of the atomic nucleus and explains the stability, instability and non-existence of the table of nuclides from Hydrogen to Neon. ORGINALITY- The Cordus theory is a novel conceptual framework for fundamental physics. It shows that a specific structure of particles has excellent explanatory power for many phenomena. The strengths of the theory are: Explanatory (ontological) power; Coherent solution across multiple phenomena; Offers candidate solutions to otherwise intractable problems. IMPLICATIONS- The Bell-type inequalities are falsified. Physical realism is re-asserted. The stochastic nature of the wave-function is subsumed in a deeper explanation. The theory is not inimical to quantum mechanics, which it reinterprets as a stochastic approximation of a deeper determinism. The new theory has philosophical implications because it shows that it is possible to conceive of a solution for fundamental physics that is grounded in physical realism. The theory therefore rebuts the idea that the deeper level of physics is purely mathematical, and it rejects the many-worlds interpretation.
Problem: Superposition and entanglement are coherent effects, which can be quantified by quantum mechanics (QM), but lack descriptive explanations. They are typically analysed with inequality methods, and the results favour QM and reject physical realism and hidden-variable solutions. In particular, Colbeck & Renner (2011) showed that no extension of quantum theory can exist with better predictive power than quantum mechanics itself. Purpose: The purpose here is to critically evaluate from a conceptual and philosophical perspective the ontological underpinnings of the inequality approach. The current work is speculative in nature as it is based on a conjectured non-local hidden-variable (NLHV) design for particles, and does not yet have a mathematical formalism. Nonetheless this is worth attempting for the philosophical questions it poses about the nature of reality, and the pointers it gives to possible future directions in fundamental physics. Findings: The premises of the C & R proof (that particles are points, that locality exists, that quantum theory is correct) are inconsistent, hence invalidate its conclusion. We also show that superposition and entanglement may be qualitatively explained if particles were to have the internal structure proposed by the Cordus NLHV theory. Originality: The ability to explain superposition and entanglement conceptually in terms of physical realism is relevant because it rebuts the claim that it is impossible that such a hidden-variable theory could exist. This is significant because previously it has been believed that these phenomena are explainable by QM only.
Problem- There are deep unanswered questions about photon emission, specifically how the field structures of the photon emerge from the electron. While this problem cannot be answered from within quantum mechanics, due to its premise that particles are zero dimensional points, other theories of physics have better prospects. Purpose- A conceptual theory is developed for the processes of photon emission and absorption, in a non-local hidden-variable (NLHV) design called the Cordus theory. Approach- Logical inference is used to predict the structures of the discrete fields of the photon and electron under this framework. From this is extracted an explanation of how electron bonding constraints require the electron to emit its excess energy, and how the photon is created and emerges from the electron. Findings- Emission is found to be an escapement mechanism whereby matter particles that are over-prescribed in position can get rid of that energy, and the details of this are explained. The results show excellent qualitative agreement with classical electromagnetic wave theory and quantum mechanics, many conceptual features of which can be recovered. Originality- A novel conceptual theory is developed for the processes of photon emission and absorption. Particularly important here is the proposed causality whereby bonding constraints affect geometric span of the particule, which affects frequency. Hence this constrains the energy that the electron can contain, and explains why the emitted photon has a specific quantum of energy. A second contribution is the proposed differentiation between the discrete fields of the photon and electron. This yields an explanation for the exponential nature of the evanescent field, and recovery of the inverse radius squared relationship for the electro-magneto-gravitational fields. The theory also offers a physical interpretation of the fine structure constant α as a measure of the transmission efficacy of the fabric, i.e. α determines the relationship between the electric constant of the vacuum fabric, and the speed of propagation c through the fabric. There is further novelty in achieving this from the non-local hidden-variable sector of physics. Implications- Quantum mechanics originated with the observation that the movement of electrons between orbitals resulted in emission of photons with discrete quanta of energy. However it does not explain how the transitions occur. The original contribution here is showing that a solution does exist in NLHV physics. Assuming this is valid then the implications are that particles have internal structure and that quantum mechanics is merely a quantitative statistical summary of a deeper physics.
Problem: The Fresnel equations describe the proportions of reflected and transmitted light from a surface, and are conventionally derived from wave theory continuum mechanics. Particle-based derivations of the Fresnel equations appear not to exist. Approach: The objective of this work was to derive the basic optical laws from first principles from a particle basis. The particle model used was the Cordus theory, a type of non-local hidden-variable (NLHV) theory that predicts specific substructures to the photon and other particles. Findings: The theory explains the origin of the orthogonal electrostatic and magnetic fields, and re-derives the refraction and reflection laws including Snell’s law and critical angle, and the Fresnel equations for s and p-polarisation. These formulations are identical to those produced by electromagnetic wave theory. Contribution: The work provides a comprehensive derivation and physical explanation of the basic optical laws, which appears not to have previously been shown from a particle basis. Implications: The primary implications are for suggesting routes for the theoretical advancement of fundamental physics. The Cordus NLHV particle theory explains optical phenomena, yet it also explains other physical phenomena including some otherwise only accessible through quantum mechanics (such as the electron spin g-factor) and general relativity (including the Lorentz and relativistic Doppler). It also provides solutions for phenomena of unknown causation, such as asymmetrical baryogenesis, unification of the interactions, and reasons for nuclide stability/instability. Consequently, the implication is that NLHV theories have the potential to represent a deeper physics that may underpin and unify quantum mechanics, general relativity, and wave theory.
The purpose of this paper was to look for non-local designs of particles. We show that the Bell-type theorems are not proof against a hidden variable solution, by presenting such a model complete with the first level of internal functional structures. A design method was used to infer the internal structures that would be necessary to explain the observed phenomena of entanglement. The result is a novel model called the cordus particule, which is proposed to have two reactive ends that are separated in space. The model proposes the internal structures and provides mechanisms showing how the external behaviour arises from those structures. A mechanism is given for superluminal entanglement. The model predicts outcomes from Bell-type tests that are consistent with empirical results. This shows that it is conceptually possible to create hidden-variable solutions that are based on physical sub-structures. We suggest that the better interpretation of entanglement and the Bell-type theorems is that both local realism and the zero-dimensional point construct are false. The cordus model produces a new concept for the mechanism for locality and the extents thereof, and implies the need to abandon strict locality and local realism, at least at the deeper level. Nonetheless an approximate retention of both locality and realism is provided. The results suggest it is worthwhile questioning the established ideas of physics regarding the composition of particules, and we particularly identify the zero-dimensional point construct as ripe for revision.
A previous conceptual work, called the Cordus conjecture, has proposed a non-local hidden-variable (NLHV) design for the photon, and thereby proposed a solution to photon entanglement and wave-particle duality. This paper applies a systems design approach to extend the theory to matter, specifically to differentiate between the matter-antimatter species. This concept rests on two premises: that particules have span (physical separation between reactive ends); and that their externally emitted discrete forces have an energisation sequence. Specific hidden-variable models are proposed for the electron, positron, and proton. This concept provides a better explanation of the difference between matter and antimatter in ways that make physical sense. It also provides foundational concepts from which new solutions to other problems, like annihilation and baryogenesis, can be envisaged. The Cordus theory goes beyond conventional NLHV solutions, such as the de Broglie-Bohm model, by offering a solution not only for the inner contents of a particle, the hidden variables, but also predicting how its discrete fields operate. This theory provides a physically natural explanation for spin, handedness, chirality, and related directional attributes of particles, which are otherwise only abstract concepts in quantum mechanics. The theory also explains parity violation, and why the photon does not have an antiparticle. This work makes a conceptual contribution of presenting a new concept of handedness and the matter-antimatter species differentiation. It demonstrates the potential of hidden-variable designs to provide solutions of high explanatory power.
CONTEXT The spin of a particle is physically manifest in multiple phenomena. For quantum mechanics (QM), spin is an intrinsic property of a point particle, but an ontological explanation is lacking. In this paper we propose a physical explanation for spin at the sub-particle level, using a non-local hidden-variable (NLHV) theory. APPROACH Mechanisms for spin were inferred from the Cordus NLHV theory, specifically from theorised structures at the sub-particle level. RESULTS Physical geometry of the particle can explain spin phenomena: polarisation, Pauli exclusion principle (Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox), excited states, and selective spin of neutrino species. A quantitative derivation is provided for electron spin g-factor g = 2, and a qualitative explanation for the anomalous component. IMPLICATIONS NLHV theory offers a candidate route to new physics at the sub-particle level. This also implies philosophically that physical realism may apply to physics at the deeper level below QM. ORIGINALITY The electron g-factor has been derived using sub-particle structures in NLHV theory, without using quantum theory. This is significant as the g-factor is otherwise considered uniquely predicted by QM. Explanations are provided for spin phenomena in terms of physical sub-structures to the particle.