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arXiv:2608.21679

Simultaneous Intensity and Frequency Control for Optical Waveform Generation using an Acousto Optic Modulator

Hariprasad Madathil, Shengzhi Wang, F. Elohim Becerra

physics.opticsphysics.app-phquant-phSubmitted Aug 21, 2026• Announced Aug 25, 2026
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Abstract

We describe a method for calibrating the response of an acousto-optic modulator (AOM) to enable precise, arbitrary control of the intensity and frequency of optical fields. The method involves characterizing the nonlinear response of the AOM to its input RF drive voltage and applying an iterative calibration/correction algorithm to accurately map input RF amplitude and frequency drive to output optical intensity and frequency shifts. After a few calibration/correction iterations, the calibration of the AOM maintains the optical power within 1$\%$ of a constant target value over relatively wide frequency tuning range ($\approx$100 MHz), with $σ=0.2\%$ relative deviation. We apply this calibration method to generate programmable waveforms and optical pulses with tailored intensity and frequency profiles that closely match their target specifications. This technique offers a simple and robust method for applications that require high-accuracy optical modulation.

Comments
10 pages, 12 figures

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We describe a method for calibrating the response of an acousto-optic modulator (AOM) to enable precise, arbitrary control of the intensity and frequency of optical fields. The method involves characterizing the nonlinear response of the AOM to its input RF drive voltage and applying an iterative calibration/correction algorithm to accurately map input RF amplitude and frequency drive to output optical intensity and frequency shifts. After a few calibration/correction iterations, the calibration of the AOM maintains the optical power within 1%\%% of a constant target value over relatively wide frequency tuning range (≈\approx≈100 MHz), with σ=0.2%σ=0.2\%σ=0.2% relative deviation. We apply this calibration method to generate programmable waveforms and optical pulses with tailored intensity and frequency profiles that closely match their target specifications. This technique offers a simple and robust method for applications that require high-accuracy optical modulation.
In several types of quantum computers light is one of the main tools to control both the position and the quantum state of the atoms used for computing. In practical systems laser light is applied to manipulate quantum states of qubits in the desired way. Beside physical effects like decoherence and quantum noise the precision of qubit manipulation has a significant impact on the achievable quantum computing error rate. One of the key optical components beside the laser is the optical modulator, which modulates or switches a constant power laser light in order to provide light pulses or pulse sequences with a desired envelope. Acousto-optic (AOM) and electro-optic (EOM) modulators can be applied, which are both voltage controlled. However, there is neither a simple linear relationship between their control signal and the precise modulator output, nor can they be considered to have time-invariant characteristics. The aim of this paper is to describe techniques to generate AOM and EOM control signals in such a way that almost arbitrary target output waveforms (i. e. optical power versus time) are achieved with high accuracy.
Acousto-optic deflectors (AOD) enable spatiotemporal control of laser beams through diffraction at an ultrasonic grating that is controllable by radio-frequency (rf) waveforms. These devices are a widely used tool for high-bandwidth random-access scanning applications, such as optical tweezers in quantum technology. A single AOD can generate multiple optical tweezers by multitone rf input in one dimension. Two-dimensional (2D) patterns can be realized with two perpendicularly oriented AODs. As the acousto-optical response depends nonlinearly on the applied frequency components, phases, and amplitudes, and in addition experiences dimensional coupling in 2D setups, intensity regulation becomes a unique challenge. Guided by coupled-wave theory and experimental observations, we derive a compute-efficient model which we implement on a graphics processing unit. Only one-time sampling of single-tone laser-power calibration is needed for model parameter determination, allowing for straight-forward integration into optical instruments. We implement and experimentally validate an open-loop diffraction efficiency control system that enables programmable 2D multibeam trajectories with intensity control applied at every time step during digital signal generation, overcoming the limited flexibility, pattern-size constraints, and bandwidth limitations of methods using precalculation and precalibration of a predefined pattern set or closed-loop feedback. The system is capable of stable real-time waveform streaming of arrays with up to 50 x 50 tweezers with minimal time resolution of 1.4 ns (700 MS/s) and a peak latency below 257 microseconds for execution of newly requested patterns. Reactive, real-time 2D multibeam laser patterning and scanning with strict intensity matching will substantially benefit parallelization and increasing data rates in materials processing, microscopy, and optical tweezers.
Scaling quantum control for atoms, ions, and solid-state emitters requires gigahertz-frequency spectral control of high-power visible light in a volume-manufacturable platform. Silicon nitride photonics provides high power handling and CMOS-foundry compatibility but has no intrinsic mechanism for high-speed modulation. Integration with piezoelectric materials enables acousto-optic phase modulation, and mechanical resonant enhancement has made it efficient at gigahertz frequencies. However, a single resonance restricts the modulation waveform to a single tone, imposing Bessel-function sideband amplitudes and limiting frequency-shifting efficiency to 33.9%. Here we engineer a silicon nitride acousto-optic microstructure to support harmonically spaced resonances at 1.14 GHz and 2.28 GHz, each strongly optomechanically coupled to a 730 nm guided optical mode, so that tailored non-sinusoidal modulation waveforms can be resonantly synthesized. By piezoelectrically controlling the two mechanical amplitudes and their relative phase, we demonstrate 50% conversion to one sideband (1.5x the single-tone theoretical maximum), a flat seven-line comb, and a frequency shift with 60 dB carrier and 53 dB image suppression - to our knowledge the highest reported for an integrated modulator. The devices are fabricated in a 200 mm CMOS foundry, and we measure 91.7% yield without post-fabrication tuning across 36 devices from three wafers. We also show how the technique can be straightforwardly scaled to three or more harmonics. This result overcomes the trade-off between resonant enhancement and spectral programmability, with important consequences including improved single-qubit gate efficiency for hyperfine qubits.
Optical manipulation of quantum systems requires stable laser sources able to produce complex waveforms over a large frequency range. In the visible region, such waveforms can be generated using an acousto-optic modulator driven by an arbitrary waveform generator, but these suffer from a limited tuning range typically of a few tens of MHz. Visible-range electro-optic modulators are an alternative option offering a larger modulation bandwidth, however they have limited output power which drastically restricts the scalability of quantum applications. There is currently no architecture able to perform phase-stabilized waveforms over several GHz in the visible or near infrared region while providing sufficient optical power for quantum applications. Here we propose and develop a modulation and frequency conversion set-up able to deliver optical waveforms over a large frequency range, with a high spurious extinction ratio, scalable to the entire visible/near infrared region with high optical power. The optical waveforms are first generated at telecom wavelength and then converted to the emitter wavelength through a sum frequency generation process. By adapting the pump laser frequency, the optical waveforms can be tuned to interact with a broad range of optical quantum emitters or qubits such as alkali atoms, trapped ions, rare earth ions, or fluorescent defects in solid-state matrices. Using this architecture, we were able to detect and study a single erbium ion in a nanoparticle. We also generated high bandwidth signals at 606 nm, which would enable frequency multiplexing of on-demand read-out Pr3+:Y2SiO5 quantum memories.
A key requirement for quantum technologies based on atoms, ions, and molecules is the ability to realize precise phase- and amplitude-controlled quantum operations via coherent laser pulses. However, for generating pulses on the submicrosecond timescale, the characteristics of the optical and electronic components can introduce unwanted distortions that have a detrimental effect on the fidelity of quantum operations. In this paper, we present a compact arbitrary optical waveform modulator that integrates a double-pass acousto-optic modulator for user-specified laser amplitude and phase modulations. Additionally, the module integrates an optical heterodyne detector to extract the precise laser pulse shape in real time. The measured pulse shape is then fed into a digital feedback loop used to estimate the complex-valued transfer function and predistorted input pulses. We demonstrate the performance by generating shaped laser pulses suitable for realizing quantum logic gates with durations down to 180 ns, requiring only a small number of feedback iterations.
We describe and experimentally evaluate a stabilized radio-frequency transfer technique that employs optical phase sensing and optical phase actuation. This technique is achieved by modifying existing optical frequency transfer equipment and also exhibits advantages over previous stabilized radiofrequency transfer techniques in terms of size and complexity. Acousto-optic modulators (AOMs) are used to modulate an optical carrier. Stabilization of frequency fluctuations in the link is achieved by steering the frequency of one of the AOMs. We demonstrate the stabilized transfer of a 160-MHz signal over a 166-km fiber optical link, achieving an Allan deviation of 9.7 × 10-12at 1 s of integration, and 6.4 × 10-15at 104s. This technique was considered for application to the Square Kilometre Array SKA1-low radio telescope.