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arXiv:2512.08433 · PRX Quantum

Benchmarking Gaussian and non-Gaussian input states with a hybrid sampling platform

Michael Stefszky, Kai-Hong Luo, Jan-Lucas Eickmann, Simone Atzeni, Florian Lütkewitte, Cheeranjiv Pandey, Fabian Schlue, Jonas Lammers, Mikhail Roiz, Timon Schapeler, Laura Ares, Milad Yahyapour, Alexander Kastner, Joschua Martinek, Michael Mittermair, Carlos Sevilla-Gutiérrez, Marius Leyendecker, Oskar Kohout, Dmitriy Mitin, Ronald Holzwarth, Jan Sperling, Tim Bartley, Fabian Steinlechner, Benjamin Brecht, Christine Silberhorn

quant-phSubmitted Dec 9, 2025• Announced Dec 10, 2025• 0 citations• Revised Mar 31, 2026 (v2)
v1 · Dec 9, 2025v2 · Mar 31, 2026v3 · Oct 1, 2026
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Abstract

The original boson sampling paradigm-consisting of multiple single-photon input states, a large interferometer, and multi-channel click detection-was originally proposed as a photonic route to quantum computational advantage. Its non-Gaussian resources, essential for outperforming any classical system, are provided by single-photon inputs and click detection. Yet the drive toward larger experiments has led to the replacement of experimentally demanding single-photon sources with Gaussian states, thereby diminishing the available non-Gaussianity-a critical quantum resource. As the community broadens its focus from the initial sampling task to possible real-world applications, it becomes crucial to quantify the performance cost associated with reducing non-Gaussian resources and to benchmark sampling platforms that employ different input states. To address this need, we introduce the Paderborn Quantum Sampler (PaQS), a hybrid platform capable of performing sampling experiments with eight Gaussian or non-Gaussian input states in a 12-mode interferometer within a single experimental run. This architecture enables direct, side-by-side benchmarking of distinct sampling regimes under otherwise identical conditions. By employing a semi-device-independent framework, offering certification that does not rely on prior knowledge of the interferometer or the input states, we verify that the observed data cannot be reproduced by any classical model-a prerequisite for demonstrating quantum advantage. Applying this framework, we observe clear performance gains arising from non-Gaussian input states.

DOI
10.1103/kqyv-lvvy

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The original boson sampling paradigm-consisting of multiple single-photon input states, a large interferometer, and multi-channel click detection-was originally proposed as a photonic route to quantum computational advantage. Its non-Gaussian resources, essential for outperforming any classical system, are provided by single-photon inputs and click detection. Yet the drive toward larger experiments has led to the replacement of experimentally demanding single-photon sources with Gaussian states, thereby diminishing the available non-Gaussianity-a critical quantum resource. As the community broadens its focus from the initial sampling task to possible real-world applications, it becomes crucial to quantify the performance cost associated with reducing non-Gaussian resources and to benchmark sampling platforms that employ different input states.
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Boson sampling has emerged as an important tool to demonstrate the difference between quantum and classical computers and has attracted the interest of experimentalists and theoreticians. In this work we study boson sampling from general, single-mode states using a scheme that can generate any such state by combining Gaussian states and photon number measurements. We derive a formula that can be used to calculate the output photon number probabilities of these states after they travel through a linear interferometer. This extends the Boson sampling protocol to the widest array of possible single-mode states and from this we show that the complexity scaling of all such states is similar and hence there is no complexity advantage of using complex input states over simpler ones.
Quantum computing experiments are moving into a new realm of increasing size and complexity, with the short-term goal of demonstrating an advantage over classical computers. Boson sampling is a promising platform for such a goal; however, the number of detected single photons is up to five so far, limiting these small-scale implementations to a proof-of-principle stage. Here, we develop solid-state sources of highly efficient, pure, and indistinguishable single photons and 3D integration of ultralow-loss optical circuits. We perform experiments with 20 pure single photons fed into a 60-mode interferometer. In the output, we detect up to 14 photons and sample over Hilbert spaces with a size up to 3.7×10^{14}, over 10 orders of magnitude larger than all previous experiments, which for the first time enters into a genuine sampling regime where it becomes impossible to exhaust all possible output combinations. The results are validated against distinguishable samplers and uniform samplers with a confidence level of 99.9%.