Most, if not all, photonic quantum computing (PQC) relies upon superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) typically based on niobium nitride (NbN) operated at a temperature <4 K. This paper proposes and analyzes 300 K waveguide-integrated germanium–silicon (GeSi) single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) based on the recently demonstrated normal-incidence GeSi SPADs operated at room temperature, and shows that their performance is competitive against that of NbN SNSPDs in a series of metrics for PQC with a reasonable time-gating window. These GeSi SPADs become photon-number-resolving avalanche diodes (PNRADs) by deploying a spatially-multiplexed M-fold-waveguide array of M GeSi SPADs. Using on-chip waveguided spontaneous four-wave mixing sources and waveguided field-programmable interferometer mesh circuits, together with the high-metric SPADs and PNRADs, high-performance quantum computing at room temperature is predicted for this PQC architecture.
Most, if not all, photonic quantum computing (PQC) relies upon superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) typically based on niobium nitride (NbN) operated at a temperature <4 K. This paper proposes and analyzes 300 K waveguide-integrated germanium–silicon (GeSi) single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) based on the recently demonstrated normal-incidence GeSi SPADs operated at room temperature, and shows that their performance is competitive against that of NbN SNSPDs in a series of metrics for PQC with a reasonable time-gating window. These GeSi SPADs become photon-number-resolving avalanche diodes (PNRADs) by deploying a spatially-multiplexed M-fold-waveguide array of M GeSi SPADs. Using on-chip waveguided spontaneous four-wave mixing sources and waveguided field-programmable interferometer mesh circuits, together with the high-metric SPADs and PNRADs, high-performance quantum computing at room temperature is predicted for this PQC architecture.
Optical quantum information processing, quantum key distribution (QKD), and linear optical quantum computing (LOQC) rely fundamentally on single-photon detectors capable of ultra-high system detection efficiency, low dark count rates, sub-nanosecond timing jitter, and high maximum count rates. Superconducting Nanowire Single-Photon Detectors (SNSPDs) have emerged as the gold-standard quantum light detection technology, outperforming semiconductor avalanche photodiodes (APDs) and transition-edge sensors (TES) across every major performance metric. By biasing ultrathin superconducting nanometric strips (e.g., NbN, WSi) close to their critical superconducting-to-normal transition temperature, the absorption of a single optical photon breaks Cooper pairs, creating a localized resistive hot spot that generates an electrical voltage pulse with near-unity quantum efficiency (>98%) and picosecond timing jitter (<10 ps). Integrating SNSPDs directly onto Quantum Photonic Integrated Circuits (QPICs) on silicon-on-insulator or lithium niobate substrates unlocks scalable, multi-channel quantum photonic processors. However, scaling SNSPDs from single-pixel devices to large multiplexed focal plane arrays introduces severe cryogenic and wiring bottlenecks: massive coaxial wiring heat leaks at millikelvin dilution refrigerator stages, complex radio-frequency (RF) readout multiplexing, spatial thermal quenching limits, and single-photon coupling losses across photonic interfaces. This paper delivers an exhaustive, mathematically formal technical investigation and empirical benchmark of SNSPD-integrated quantum photonic integrated circuits. We formalize hot-spot electrothermal hotspot formation equations, derive system detection efficiency (SDE) and timing jitter bounds, and model cryogenic CMOS readout multiplexing architectures. Furthermore, we construct an enterprise multi-physics co-simulation and cryogenic optical testbed evaluating 64-channel SNSPD arrays integrated with silicon nitride QPICs across high-rate QKD and boson sampling workloads. Our empirical findings demonstrate that our integrated NbN SNSPD arrays achieve a system detection efficiency of 99.4% at 1550 nm, a timing jitter of 6.2 ps, and a dark count rate below 10^-4 Hz while operating at 2.1 K, outperforming conventional semiconductor APDs by orders of magnitude. Finally, we formulate open challenges in cryo-CMOS multiplexer thermal dissipation, multi-channel array yield, and monolithic single-photon emitter integration.
Abstract Photonic quantum technologies promise a revolution of the world of information processing, from simulation and computing to communication and sensing, thanks to the many advantages of exploiting single photons as quantum information carriers. In this scenario, single‐photon detectors play a key role. On the one hand, superconducting nanowire single‐photon detectors (SNSPDs) are able to provide remarkable performance on a broad spectral range, but their applicability is often limited by the need of cryogenic operating temperatures. On the other hand, single‐photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) overcome the intrinsic limitations of SNSPDs by providing a valid alternative at room temperature or slightly below. In this paper, the authors review the fundamental principles of the SPAD operation and provide a thorough discussion of the recent progress made in this field, comparing the performance of these devices with the requirements of the quantum photonics applications. In the end, the authors conclude with their vision of the future by summarizing prospects and unbeaten paths that can open new perspectives in the field of photonic quantum information processing.
Quantum simulators are controllable quantum sys-tems that can be used to reproduce the states and the dynamics of other quantum systems object of study. The ease to manipulate single photons on a chip at room temperature without deco-herence issues has made integrated photonics one of the most viable technologies for processing quantum information. Many demonstrations have been reported over the past fifteen years, included the simulation of complex and many-body interactions. Combining quantum light sources, reconfigurable circuits and high-efficiency single-photon detectors together on a single chip is an extremely challenging goal, still taking a lot of scientific and technological efforts worldwide. Here, we report emergent results along this direction. On a silicon nitride photonic platform, we separately show a source of photon pairs based on a microring, high-performance wavelength filters based on Mach-Zehnder in-terferometers and silicon single-photon avalanche diodes directly coupled to the photonic waveguides. The demonstration of these fundamental building blocks represents a starting point for the realization of a photonic quantum simulator operated entirely on a single chip working at room temperature.
With recent advances in quantum technologies for applications such as communication, cryptography, computing, metrology and sensing, the performance and scalability of single-photon detection as a vital key component is becoming increasingly important. At the same time, ongoing efforts in the development of high-performance photonic integrated circuits (PIC) benefit the miniaturization and scalability of these quantum technologies. Waveguide-integrated superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (WI-SNSPDs) allow to combine excellent performance metrics, such as high detection efficiency, low dark-count rates and low timing jitter below 20 ps with the scalability and functionality that PIC platforms such as Si3N4 provide. We have previously demonstrated broadband efficient single-photon detection with a single device over a range from visible to mid-infrared wavelengths and ultra-fast detector recovery times allowing for up to GHz count rates. Here, we present the utilization of WI-SNSPDs for discrete-variable quantum cryptography receivers with the complete photonic circuitry embedded together with the single-photon detectors on a single silicon chip, where the secret-key rates greatly benefit from the short recovery times of the detectors especially for metropolitan distances. We further realize a fully packaged 64 channel WI-SNSPD matrix for use in a wavelengthdivision multiplexed QKD setup.
Integrated technologies greatly enhance the prospects for practical quantum information processing and sensing devices based on trapped ions. High-speed and high-fidelity ion state readout is critical for any such application. Integrated detectors offer significant advantages for system portability and can also greatly facilitate parallel operations if a separate detector can be incorporated at each ion-trapping location. Here, we demonstrate ion quantum state detection at room temperature utilizing single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) integrated directly into the substrate of silicon ion trapping chips. We detect the state of a trapped Sr^{+} ion via fluorescence collection with the SPAD, achieving 99.92(1)% average fidelity in 450 μs, opening the door to the application of integrated state detection to quantum computing and sensing utilizing arrays of trapped ions.
Quantum information processing brings new protocols to the field of communications, by ensuring absolute security of information transfer thanks to the laws of quantum physics. Furthermore, in the field of computing, quantum processing offers the perspective of performing massively parallel calculations, orders of magnitude faster than with a classical computer. For these two applications, excellent detectors are required with ultimate performances. Superconducting nanowire single photon detectors (SNSPDs) are the best candidate, as they can reach near-unity detection efficiency. We are developing on-chip waveguide integrated SNSPDs on 200 mm SOI wafers, addressing both the material, architecture design and fabrication process challenges.