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arXiv:2103.07363

Investigation of the dependence of noise characteristics of SPAD on the gate parameters in sine-wave gated single-photon detectors

Anton Losev, Vladimir Zavodilenko, Andrey Koziy, Yury Kurochkin, Alexander A. Gorbatsevich

Published Mar 11, 2021• 0 citations
arXivHTMLPDF

Abstract

In this paper, we have investigated a self-developed sine wave gated (SWG) single-photon detector (SPD) for 1550 nm wavelength primary for quantum key distribution (QKD) usage. We have investigated different gate parameters` influence on the SPD`s noise characteristics. We have admitted that with an increase of gating voltage and constant value of quantum efficiency (QE), the dark count rate (DCR) decreases. There have been made some recommendations to improve SPD`s and whole QKD device's characteristics based on these observations. There have been discovered the quick rise of the DCR value with the increase of gating voltage above some certain value and this value was different for different detectors. It has been shown that universal empirical dependence compilation to connect control and operational parameters of SPD is a non-trivial task.

DOI
10.48550/arxiv.2103.07363

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In this paper, we have investigated a self-developed sine wave gated (SWG) single-photon detector (SPD) for 1550 nm wavelength primary for quantum key distribution (QKD) usage. We have investigated different gate parameters influence on the SPDs noise characteristics. We have admitted that with an increase of gating voltage and constant value of quantum efficiency (QE), the dark count rate (DCR) decreases. There have been made some recommendations to improve SPD`s and whole QKD device's characteristics based on these observations. There have been discovered the quick rise of the DCR value with the increase of gating voltage above some certain value and this value was different for different detectors. It has been shown that universal empirical dependence compilation to connect control and operational parameters of SPD is a non-trivial task.
In this paper, we investigateda self-developed sine wave gated single-photon detector (SPD) for 1550 nm wavelength primary for quantum key distribution (QKD) usage. We studied the influence of DC bias voltage and AC gate amplitude on the SPD’s functional parameters and presented a simple and effective algorithm for its optimization. Such optimization showed practical benefits while SPD was set up on the QKD device. We admitted that the dark count rate decreases with an increase in gating voltage with fixed photon detection efficiency. We observed the charge persistence effect in sine-gated SPDs, which previously had been observed only at square-pulses gated SPDs, and showed that this effect is limiting for infinity increasing gate amplitude.
A sine-gated single-photon detector (SPD) intended for use in a quantum key distribution (QKD) system is considered in this paper. An "avalanche delay" effect in the sine-gated SPD is revealed. This effect consists in the appearance of an avalanche triggered at the next gate after the photon arrival gate. It has been determined experimentally that the nature of this effect is not related to the known effects of afterpulsing or charge persistence. This effect negatively affects the overall error rate in the QKD system. The influence of the main detector control parameters, such as temperature, gate amplitude and comparator's threshold voltage, on the avalanche delay effect was experimentally established.
GHz single-photon detector (SPD) is a crucial part in the practical high speed quantum key distribution (QKD) system. However, any imperfections in a practical QKD system may be exploited by an eavesdropper (Eve) to collect information about the key without being discovered. The sine wave gating SPD (SG-SPD) based on InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiode, one kind of practical high speed SPD, may also contain loopholes. In this paper, we study the principle and characteristic of the SG-SPD and find out the filtering loophole of the SG-SPD for the first time. What is more, the proof-of-principle experiment shows that Eve could blind and control Bob’s SG-SPD by exploiting this loophole. We believe that giving enough attention to this loophole can improve the practical security of the existing QKD system.
Silicon single-photon detectors (SPDs) are the key devices for detecting single photons in the visible wavelength range. Here we present high detection efficiency silicon SPDs dedicated to the generation of multiphoton entanglement based on the technique of high-frequency sine wave gating. The silicon single-photon avalanche diode components are acquired by disassembling 6 commercial single-photon counting modules (SPCMs). Using the new quenching electronics, the average detection efficiency of SPDs is increased from 68.6% to 73.1% at a wavelength of 785 nm. These sine wave gating SPDs are then applied in a four-photon entanglement experiment, and the four-fold coincidence count rate is increased by 30% without degrading its visibility compared with the original SPCMs.
In this thesis, we investigate the single photon detection ability of Avalanche Photodiode (APD) at 1550 nm and improve the single photon detection efficiency by using Self-Differencing technique. In order to apply this experimental setup to the Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) system, we have to discuss and analyze characteristic parameters of APD, including Dark Count Rate (DCR), Single Photon Detection Efficiency (SPDE), Noise Equipment Power (NEP) and Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER). For the purpose of reducing the spike effect caused by the capacitance in the APD, we try to process the output signal from the conventional setup output using the Self-Differencing circuit for spike cancelling. Moreover, it can also significantly decrease discrimination level. At lower discrimination level can let us catch more avalanche signals and raise the detection performance. This setup makes it more efficient under the -50℃. In our experiment, we investigate the influence of single photon detection efficiency from different parameters, such as temperature, excess bias voltage, pulse width and gated frequency. To demonstrate the afterpulsing effect by releasing the trapped carriers in the lower temperature, we cool down the APD to the temperature of -70℃. We also choose the best parameters to calculate the results of Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER) and the transmission distance in theory. All of that are prepared for the structuring a Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) system in the future studies. Finally, using the self-differencing schematic at a temperature of -50℃, with a repetition rate of 100 KHz, and the excess bias voltage of 3 V, the best single-photon detection efficiency of 17.43% and the equivalent noise power is as low as 1.92×10-15 W/Hz1/2 were obtained. It is found that the minimum dark count rate of 1.2×10-5 appears when the temperature is -60℃ and the excess bias voltage is 1.6 V. Using above condition, the corresponding back to back quantum bit error rate is 3.09%. The maximum available transmission distance is 42 Km in which the quantum bit error rate is expected below 15%.
High-performance single-photon detectors (SPDs) at 1550-nm band are critical for fiber-based quantum communications. Among many types of SPDs, the up-conversion SPDs based on periodically poled lithium niobate waveguides are of great interest. Combined with a strong pump laser, the telecom single-photons are converted into short wavelength ones and detected by silicon-based SPDs. However, due to the difficulty of precise controlling waveguide profile, the direct coupling between a single-mode fiber and the waveguide is not efficient. Here by utilizing fiber taper with proper diameter, optimal mode-matching is achieved and coupling efficiency up to 93% is measured. With an optimized design, a system detection efficiency of 36% and noise counting rate of 90 cps are realized. The maximum detection efficiency is characterized as 40% with a noise counting rate of 200 cps. Numerical simulation results indicate that our device can significantly improve the performance of QKD and extend the communication distance longer than 200 km.