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arXiv:2007.12768 · EPJ Quantum Technology

A low-noise single-photon detector for long-distance free-space quantum communication

Elena Anisimova, Dmitri Nikulov, Simeng Simone Hu, Mark Bourgon, Sebastian Philipp Neumann, Rupert Ursin, Thomas Jennewein, Vadim Makarov

Published Oct 26, 2021• 12 citations
arXivHTMLPDF

Abstract

Abstract We build and test a single-photon detector based on a Si avalanche photodiode Excelitas 30902SH thermoelectrically cooled to −100∘C. Our detector has dark count rate below 1 Hz, $500\ \mu\mathrm{m}$ 500 μ m diameter photosensitive area, photon detection efficiency around 50%, afterpulsing less than 0.35%, and timing jitter under 1 ns. These characteristics make it suitable for long-distance free-space quantum communication links, which we briefly discuss. We also report an improved method that we call long-time afterpulsing analysis, used to determine and visualise long trap lifetimes at different temperatures.

DOI
10.1140/epjqt/s40507-021-00111-0

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Abstract In order to realize long‐distance quantum cryptography based on standard optical fiber network, we have developed a single‐photon detector at 1550 nm using InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiodes (APDs). To reduce the dark count probability, APDs were cooled and operated with a Gated Passive Quenching Circuit. A quantum efficiency of 13.7% was obtained at −55 °C while keeping the dark count probability per gate (2 ns) as low as 2.4 × 10−5. In this paper we will discuss the performance of the developed single‐photon detector in view of application to quantum cryptography. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electron Comm Jpn Pt 2, 86(5): 10–15, 2003; Published online in Wiley InterScience ( www.interscience.wiley.com ). DOI 10.1002/ecjb.10115

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It is challenging to implement genuine free running single photon detectors for the 1550 nm wavelength range with simultaneously high detection efficiency (DE), low dark noise, and good time resolution. We report a novel read out system for the signals from a negative feedback avalanche diode (NFAD)1–3 which allows useful op-eration of these devices at a temperature of 193 K and results in very low dark counts ( ∼ 100 CPS), good time jitter ( ∼ 30 ps), and good DE (∼10 %). We char-acterized two NFADs with a time correlation method using photons generated from weak coherent pulses (WCP) and photon pairs produced by spontaneous parametric down conversion (SPDC). The inferred detector efficiencies for both types of pho-ton sources agree with each other. The best noise equivalent power of the device is estimated to be 8.1 × 10−18 W · Hz−1/2, more than 10 times better than typical InP/InGaAs SPADs show in free running mode. The afterpulsing probability was found to be less than 0.1 % per ns at the optimized operating point. In addition, we studied the performance of an entanglement-based quantum key distribution (QKD) using these detectors and develop a model for the quantum bit error rate (QBER) that incorporates the afterpulsing coefficients. We verified experimentally that using these NFADs it is feasible to implement QKD over 400 km of telecom fibre. Our NFAD photon detector system is very simple, and is well suited for single-photon applications where ultra-low noise and free-running operation is required, and some afterpulsing can be tolerated.

•Aug 17, 2016•45 citations
Abstract We build and test a single-photon detector based on a Si avalanche photodiode Excelitas 30902SH thermoelectrically cooled to −100∘C. Our detector has dark count rate below 1 Hz, 500 μm500\ \mu\mathrm{m}500 μm 500 μ m diameter photosensitive area, photon detection efficiency around 50%, afterpulsing less than 0.35%, and timing jitter under 1 ns. These characteristics make it suitable for long-distance free-space quantum communication links, which we briefly discuss. We also report an improved method that we call long-time afterpulsing analysis, used to determine and visualise long trap lifetimes at different temperatures.
Single photons detectors are required for applications like quantum key distribution and testing Bell's inequalities. Silicon avalanche photodiodes (Si APD's) have advantages like low dark count rate. This thesis aims to experimentally characterize Si APD's under conditions experienced in low earth orbit on board a satellite and also develop supporting algorithms and simulations. \n \nIn chapter 1, I motivate the use of Si APD's as single photon detectors on a satellite. I also briefly explain the how these APD's work and the related electronics. \n \nIn chapter 2, I describe the test setup used in the laboratory at the Institute for Quantum Computing to characterize the APD's. I then explain how one goes about measuring and/or calculating the different characteristic parameters of the APD. These characteristics include breakdown voltage, output pulse characteristics, recharge time, dark counts, detection efficiency, timing jitter of APD, saturation value and afterpulsing probability. The aim of the lab characterization is to form a baseline measurement under nominal conditions before we introduce the APD to conditions of low Earth orbit. \n \nIn chapter 3, the APD's are exposed to proton radiation which is expected in low Earth orbit. Such radiation causes displacement defects in the APD's substrate and increases dark counts. Previous work [1] has shown that thermal annealing (increasing the APD temperature for a period of time) is successful in decreasing the dark count rate to operational range. It is anticipated that multiple annealing instance would be needed in operation under constant bombardment of protons. The work in this thesis explores possibility of using annealing repeatedly by alternating instances of proton irradiation and annealing. Other parameters of the APD are also under scrutiny to see if they change over the course of this experiment. A secondary objective explores if it is better to anneal only when the dark count rate drops below a threshold value or anneal after fixed intervals of time regardless of the dark count rates. A novel algorithm is also developed to analyze the afterpulsing probability. The algorithm is applied to simulated thermal count and afterpulse timetags to demonstrate its effectiveness. It is also applied to the data set drawn from the experimental tests of proton irradiation and thermal annealing to calculate the afterpulsing probability. \n \nIn chapter 4 the APD's are exposed to the vacuum conditions that they would encounter in low Earth orbit. The bracket and radiator are set to different temperatures to simulate thermal variations in orbit. The detectors are then characterized for the aforementioned parameters to ensure they are in operable range. \n \nIn chapter 5, I distinguish between the usual notion of afterpulsing probability which relates to the probability of trapping of charge carriers and the observed afterpulsing probability which differs from the former due to dead time and recharge time. I then use first principles to derive the observed afteprulsing probability as a function of charge trapping probability, charge detrapping lifetime, dead time and thermal count rate. I further go on to lay the theoretical ground work the afterpulsing algorithm developed in section 3.3.8 by deriving the analytical expression for the histogram between time differences of consecutive time tags and then justifying the linearity of the thermal region of the histogram. \n \nFinally, in chapter 6, I devise a numerical experiment where I simulated a quantum link to implement the quantum key distribution. I model the photon statistics of a weak coherent pulsed laser and the parameters of a Si APD (the one mentioned above). I then model the coincidence algorithm to determine photon coincidences and model a simple intercept and resend attack. I calculate statistical quantities of quantum bit error ratio and sifted key generation rate.
The implementation and commercialization of quantum cryptography technologies have to face some challenges related to the development of single-photon detectors operating at 1550 nm. The main requirements are: i) high detection efficiency; ii) low noise; iii) high count rate; iv) low timing jitter. Different technologies are currently available for single-photon detection at 1550 nm, but semiconductor devices (like Single-Photon Avalanche Diode, SPAD) offer a photon detection efficiency that is inherently higher than any photocathode employed in vacuum tube detectors. Additionally InGaAs/InP SPADs can detect single photons at 1550 nm with low noise when moderately cooled by means of thermo-electric coolers. Consequently, InGaAs/InP SPAD can be the enabling technology of practical quantum key distribution (QKD) systems, provided that the maximum count rate is increased above 1 Mcps. The main limit is the afterpulsing effect that usually sets too long (< 10 μs) a hold-off time after each avalanche ignition. We present the developments achieved in InGaAs/InP SPAD device design, fabrication technology and front-end electronics, aimed at decreasing the afterpulsing effect, while not impairing photon detection efficiency and timing jitter. The new InGaAs/InP SPADs provide count rates higher than 1 Mcps and temporal response with 60 ps Full-Width at Half Maximum and very short (30 ps time constant) tail. The front-end electronics includes a wide-band pulse generator able to gate the SPAD up to 133 MHz repetition rate. Eventually, a fast avalanche-quenching scheme minimizes quenching time to less than 1 ns, thus effectively reducing afterpulsing by decreasing the total charge flowing through the junction.
Abstract In order to realize long‐distance quantum cryptography based on standard optical fiber network, we have developed a single‐photon detector at 1550 nm using InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiodes (APDs). To reduce the dark count probability, APDs were cooled and operated with a Gated Passive Quenching Circuit. A quantum efficiency of 13.7% was obtained at −55 °C while keeping the dark count probability per gate (2 ns) as low as 2.4 × 10−5. In this paper we will discuss the performance of the developed single‐photon detector in view of application to quantum cryptography. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Electron Comm Jpn Pt 2, 86(5): 10–15, 2003; Published online in Wiley InterScience ( www.interscience.wiley.com ). DOI 10.1002/ecjb.10115
It is challenging to implement genuine free running single photon detectors for the 1550 nm wavelength range with simultaneously high detection efficiency (DE), low dark noise, and good time resolution. We report a novel read out system for the signals from a negative feedback avalanche diode (NFAD)1–3 which allows useful op-eration of these devices at a temperature of 193 K and results in very low dark counts ( ∼ 100 CPS), good time jitter ( ∼ 30 ps), and good DE (∼10 %). We char-acterized two NFADs with a time correlation method using photons generated from weak coherent pulses (WCP) and photon pairs produced by spontaneous parametric down conversion (SPDC). The inferred detector efficiencies for both types of pho-ton sources agree with each other. The best noise equivalent power of the device is estimated to be 8.1 × 10−18 W · Hz−1/2, more than 10 times better than typical InP/InGaAs SPADs show in free running mode. The afterpulsing probability was found to be less than 0.1 % per ns at the optimized operating point. In addition, we studied the performance of an entanglement-based quantum key distribution (QKD) using these detectors and develop a model for the quantum bit error rate (QBER) that incorporates the afterpulsing coefficients. We verified experimentally that using these NFADs it is feasible to implement QKD over 400 km of telecom fibre. Our NFAD photon detector system is very simple, and is well suited for single-photon applications where ultra-low noise and free-running operation is required, and some afterpulsing can be tolerated.