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An Ultra Low Noise Telecom Wavelength Free Running Single Photon Detector Using Negative Feedback Avalanche Diode

Mark A. Itzler, Thomas D. Jennewein

Published Aug 17, 2016• 45 citations

Abstract

It is challenging to implement genuine free running single photon detectors for the 1550 nm wavelength range with simultaneously high detection efficiency (DE), low dark noise, and good time resolution. We report a novel read out system for the signals from a negative feedback avalanche diode (NFAD)1–3 which allows useful op-eration of these devices at a temperature of 193 K and results in very low dark counts ( ∼ 100 CPS), good time jitter ( ∼ 30 ps), and good DE (∼10 %). We char-acterized two NFADs with a time correlation method using photons generated from weak coherent pulses (WCP) and photon pairs produced by spontaneous parametric down conversion (SPDC). The inferred detector efficiencies for both types of pho-ton sources agree with each other. The best noise equivalent power of the device is estimated to be 8.1 × 10−18 W · Hz−1/2, more than 10 times better than typical InP/InGaAs SPADs show in free running mode. The afterpulsing probability was found to be less than 0.1 % per ns at the optimized operating point. In addition, we studied the performance of an entanglement-based quantum key distribution (QKD) using these detectors and develop a model for the quantum bit error rate (QBER) that incorporates the afterpulsing coefficients. We verified experimentally that using these NFADs it is feasible to implement QKD over 400 km of telecom fibre. Our NFAD photon detector system is very simple, and is well suited for single-photon applications where ultra-low noise and free-running operation is required, and some afterpulsing can be tolerated.

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It is challenging to implement genuine free running single photon detectors for the 1550 nm wavelength range with simultaneously high detection efficiency (DE), low dark noise, and good time resolution. We report a novel read out system for the signals from a negative feedback avalanche diode (NFAD)1–3 which allows useful op-eration of these devices at a temperature of 193 K and results in very low dark counts ( ∼ 100 CPS), good time jitter ( ∼ 30 ps), and good DE (∼10 %). We char-acterized two NFADs with a time correlation method using photons generated from weak coherent pulses (WCP) and photon pairs produced by spontaneous parametric down conversion (SPDC). The inferred detector efficiencies for both types of pho-ton sources agree with each other. The best noise equivalent power of the device is estimated to be 8.1 × 10−18 W · Hz−1/2, more than 10 times better than typical InP/InGaAs SPADs show in free running mode. The afterpulsing probability was found to be less than 0.1 % per ns at the optimized operating point. In addition, we studied the performance of an entanglement-based quantum key distribution (QKD) using these detectors and develop a model for the quantum bit error rate (QBER) that incorporates the afterpulsing coefficients. We verified experimentally that using these NFADs it is feasible to implement QKD over 400 km of telecom fibre. Our NFAD photon detector system is very simple, and is well suited for single-photon applications where ultra-low noise and free-running operation is required, and some afterpulsing can be tolerated.

Free-running single photon detectors at telecom wavelengths are attractive for many tasks in quantum optics. However, until recently, the convenient and compact InGaAs/InP avalanche photodiodes did not operate with satisfactory performance in this regime due to high dark count rates and afterpulsing effects. Recent development of negative feedback avalanche diodes (NFADs) enabled very fast passive quenching of the avalanche current, effectively reducing the afterpulse probability and subsequently allowing free-running operation. Here, we present analysis of NFAD operation at low temperatures, down to 163 K, which reveals a significant reduction of the dark count rate. We succeeded in developing a compact single photon detection system with a dark count rate of ~1 cps at 10% detection efficiency. To ensure that the NFAD is in a well-defined initial condition during the characterization of the detection efficiency and afterpulsing, we use a recently developed FPGA based test procedure suitable for free-running detectors. To demonstrate the performance of the detector in a real-world application we integrate it into a 1.25 GHz clocked quantum key distribution system. An optimization of the detector temperature allowed secret key distribution in the presence of more than 30 dB of loss in the quantum channel.

We present a free-running single photon detector for telecom wavelengths based on a negative feedback avalanche photodiode (NFAD). A dark count rate as low as 1 cps was obtained at a detection efficiency of 10%, with an afterpulse probability of 2.2% for 20 μs of deadtime. This was achieved by using an active hold-off circuit and cooling the NFAD with a free-piston stirling cooler down to temperatures of −110 °C. We integrated two detectors into a practical, 625 MHz clocked quantum key distribution system. Stable, real-time key distribution in the presence of 30 dB channel loss was possible, yielding a secret key rate of 350 bps.

Two approaches to single-photon detection at telecom wavelengths have been investigated, using semiconductor and superconductor technologies. The low temperature operation of free-running InGaAs/InP negative feedback avalanche diodes (NFADs) was studied, demonstrating that they can operate with an extremely low dark count rate, which opens up a host of new applications. Secondly, superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) based on amorphous materials were developed, fabricated and characterized. These detectors are highly attractive because they can achieve excellent attributes simultaneously, such as high efficiency, low noise, good temporal resolution, no afterpulsing and high count rates. Finally, it was demonstrated that the use of NFADs can enable record distance quantum key distribution (QKD) over 307 km of optical fiber. A next generation QKD system has been proposed and numerically analyzed, aiming at extending the record distance by an additional 100 km and increasing the state-of-the-art secret key rate by over an order of magnitude.

The implementation and commercialization of quantum cryptography technologies have to face some challenges related to the development of single-photon detectors operating at 1550 nm. The main requirements are: i) high detection efficiency; ii) low noise; iii) high count rate; iv) low timing jitter. Different technologies are currently available for single-photon detection at 1550 nm, but semiconductor devices (like Single-Photon Avalanche Diode, SPAD) offer a photon detection efficiency that is inherently higher than any photocathode employed in vacuum tube detectors. Additionally InGaAs/InP SPADs can detect single photons at 1550 nm with low noise when moderately cooled by means of thermo-electric coolers. Consequently, InGaAs/InP SPAD can be the enabling technology of practical quantum key distribution (QKD) systems, provided that the maximum count rate is increased above 1 Mcps. The main limit is the afterpulsing effect that usually sets too long (< 10 μs) a hold-off time after each avalanche ignition. We present the developments achieved in InGaAs/InP SPAD device design, fabrication technology and front-end electronics, aimed at decreasing the afterpulsing effect, while not impairing photon detection efficiency and timing jitter. The new InGaAs/InP SPADs provide count rates higher than 1 Mcps and temporal response with 60 ps Full-Width at Half Maximum and very short (30 ps time constant) tail. The front-end electronics includes a wide-band pulse generator able to gate the SPAD up to 133 MHz repetition rate. Eventually, a fast avalanche-quenching scheme minimizes quenching time to less than 1 ns, thus effectively reducing afterpulsing by decreasing the total charge flowing through the junction.

The application of quantum key distribution (QKD) has raised particular demands for single-photon detectors. One of the most promising candidates at the low-loss optical fibre communications windows is the planar geometry InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche diode. These detectors have been modelled, fabricated and characterised at 1.55 µm wavelength. Their performance in terms of single-photon detection efficiency, dark count rate, timing jitter and afterpulsing behaviour are reported and compared with the best commercially available, linear multiplication avalanche photodiodes operated in Geiger-mode. Their use in the application of QKD is discussed.

We have developed a hybrid single photon detection scheme for telecom wavelengths based on nonlinear sum-frequency generation and silicon single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs). The SPAD devices employed have been designed to have very narrow temporal response, i.e. low jitter ∼40 ps, which we can exploit for increasing the allowable bit rate for quantum key distribution. The wavelength conversion is obtained using periodically poled lithium niobate waveguides (W/Gs). The inherently high efficiency of these W/Gs allows us to use a continuous wave laser to seed the nonlinear conversion so as to have a continuous detection scheme. We also present a 1.27 GHz qubit repetition rate, one-way phase encoding, quantum key distribution experiment operating at telecom wavelengths that takes advantage of this detection scheme. The proof-of-principle experiment shows a system capable of MHz raw count rates with a QBER less than 2% and estimated secure key rates greater than 100 kbit s −1 over 25 km.