Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Log inSign up
Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Blog
Job Board
Q3AS

© 2026 Aqora Quantum S.A.S.

TermsPrivacyLegal Notice

arXiv:0912.3433 · Prespacetime journal

Are there alternatives to our present theories of physical reality?

Peter Rowlands

Published Dec 17, 2009• 6 citations
arXivHTMLPDF

Abstract

Our notions of what is physically 'real' have long been based on the idea that the real is what is immediately apprehended, that is the local or observable, the physically tangible, though there has always been an alternative philosophical notion that the 'real' is some kind of ontological structure beyond immediate apprehension, and so inaccessible through physics. However, quantum mechanics, with its intrinsic nonlocal correlations, has seemingly left us with a dilemma by showing that fundamental physical theories cannot be both real and local. Reality cannot be reconstructed as a deterministic projection from physical observations. Many people think that the problem lies with quantum mechanics, but, in fact, it is more likely to be a result of unrealistic expectations. We have assumed that fundamental physics ought to be compatible with normal (macroscopic) experience. If, however, we go beyond our current high-level physical theories to the basic elements from which they are constructed, we see that a pattern emerges that gives us a very different and much more coherent understanding of what is meant by physical 'reality'.

DOI
10.48550/arxiv.0912.3433

Related papers

Could the physical world be emergent instead of fundamental, and why should we ask? (short version)

Markus P. Müller

In physics, there is the prevailing intuition that we are part of a unique external world, and that the goal of physics is to understand and describe this world. This assumption of the fundamentality of objective reality is often seen as a major prerequisite of any kind of scientific reasoning. However, here I argue that we should consider relaxing this assumption in a specific way in some contexts. Namely, there is a collection of open questions in and around physics that can arguably be addressed in a substantially more consistent and rigorous way if we consider the possibility that the first-person perspective is ultimately more fundamental than our usual notion of external world. These are questions like: which probabilities should an observer assign to future experiences if she is told that she will be simulated on a computer? How should we think of cosmology's Boltzmann brain problem, and what can we learn from the fact that measurements in quantum theory seem to do more than just reveal preexisting properties? Why are there simple computable laws of physics in the first place? This note summarizes a longer companion paper which constructs a mathematically rigorous theory along those lines, suggesting a simple and unified framework (rooted in algorithmic information theory) to address questions like those above. It is not meant as a "theory of everything" (in fact, it predicts its own limitations), but it shows how a notion of objective external world, looking very much like our own, can provably emerge from a starting point in which the first-person perspective is primary, without apriori assumptions on the existence of "laws" or a "physical world". While the ideas here are perfectly compatible with physics as we know it, they imply some quite surprising predictions and suggest that we may want to substantially revise the way we think about some foundational questions.

arXiv:1712.01816•Dec 5, 2017•9 citations

Is the World Objective?

Shantena Augusto Sabbadini

The assumption of an objective world underlying all our experiences is deeply embedded in our everyday thinking and in our language, and has been an unquestioned presupposition of the scientific enterprise for at least four centuries. Yet it is well known that quantum physics raises some highly problematic questions in this respect, questions that are still open, almost a century from the inception of the theory. I would like to propose that these questions stem from deep philosophical assumptions and can be answered in a much more coherent way if we understand the notion of an objective world not as a primary reality, but as an emergent aspect of a primary process that can be described as “experiencing”. A coherent description of the appearance of an objective world in the process of experiencing relies on a certain understanding of what is technically known as the “quantum measurement problem”, i.e. the description of the process of observation in quantum physics, which is the key problematic aspect of the theory. I will propose that the basic features that characterize a quantum observation have a much wider scope, and describe in fact all acquisition of information by an “embodied observer”, in short all experiencing happening in the world. By applying to this larger context work I have done in the more technical frame of the quantum measurement problem it can be shown that the nature of the process of experiencing is such as to inevitably generate the appearance of an objective world. Thus the objectivity of the world, although not primary and ultimately real, is an intrinsic consequence of our “experiential embodiment”, i.e. of the fact that we are in the world and all our experiences correspond to physical happenings in the world. When examined in this perspective, the “paradoxes” of quantum physics are an invitation to abandon the metaphysical assumption of the primacy of the objective dimension of reality. A philosophical position much more in tune with quantum physics views the process of experiencing as the primary source of both subject and object, consciousness and world.

Open Journal of Philosophy•Jan 1, 2014•1 citation

Against "Reality" in Physics

S. P. Boughn

The concept of "reality" is often raised in the context of philosophical foundations of physics or interpretations of quantum mechanics. When this term is so raised, it is a warning to me that I am about to be led down a rabbit hole. Such diversions usually lead nowhere unless you consider endless discussions of Schrodinger's cat, wave function collapse, quantum non-locality, and parallel universes to be useful. A prime example is the famous Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen paper wherein they concluded that the quantum wave function cannot provide a complete description of physical reality. In this essay I suggest that, in physics discourse, the term "reality" should be avoided at all costs.

arXiv:1903.08673•Mar 20, 2019•1 citation

The Quantum Revolution in Philosophy

Eddy Keming Chen

In this thought-provoking book, Richard Healey proposes a new interpretation of quantum theory inspired by pragmatist philosophy. Healey puts forward the interpretation as an alternative to realist quantum theories on the one hand such as Bohmian mechanics, spontaneous collapse theories, and many-worlds interpretations, which are different proposals for describing what the quantum world is like and what the basic laws of physics are, and nonrealist interpretations on the other hand such as quantum Bayesianism, which proposes to understand quantum theory as describing agents’ subjective epistemic states. The central idea of Healey's proposal is to understand quantum theory as providing not a description of the physical world but a set of authoritative and objectively correct prescriptions about how agents should act. The book provides a detailed development and defense of that idea, and it contains interesting discussions about a wide range of philosophical issues such as representation, probability, explanation, causation, objectivity, meaning, and fundamentality.Healey's project is at the intersection of physics and philosophy. The book is divided into two parts. Part 1 of the book discusses the foundational questions in quantum theory from the perspective of the prescriptive interpretation. In part 2, Healey discusses the philosophical implications of the view. Both parts are written in a way that is largely accessible to nonspecialists. In this brief book review, I will focus on two questions:1. How does Healey's interpretation work?2. What are the costs and benefits of accepting his interpretation?To understand Healey's ideas, we should provide some background for nonspecialists. Quantum theory has been subject to intense scrutiny and philosophical investigations in the last century. There has been enormous progress on several fronts, including the empirical tests about Bell inequalities and the development of several realist interpretations. It has been proposed that what is revolutionary about quantum theory and what sets it apart from classical physics are quantum entanglement and quantum nonlocality. For many realists, it seems that quantum theory describes a different kind of ontology and a different kind of laws of nature. They are introduced briefly below.Quantum entanglement describes the phenomenon that some physical systems have irreducibly holistic properties that are not the logical sums of the properties of the parts. For example, two electrons A and B are entangled when the pair has a quantum state that cannot be reduced to some combination of the state of A and the state of B. Quantum entanglement, a manifestation of quantum nonseparability, is reflected in the way quantum states, which are typically represented by “wave functions,” get assigned to different systems.Quantum nonlocality (also called “spooky action at a distance”) describes the phenomenon that events that are arbitrarily far apart can influence one another and the strength of the influence does not depend on their distance. Quantum nonlocality is a strange feature, and its falsity was assumed in the 1935 argument by Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen for the incompleteness of quantum theory. Remarkably, Bell (1964) proved that if the quantum predictions are accurate, then nature is nonlocal. Subsequent experimental tests since the 1980s have verified the quantum predictions to a high level of precision, reinforcing the conclusion that nature is nonlocal.1Among the realist theories of quantum mechanics, Bohmian mechanics and spontaneous collapse theories are nonlocal. Moreover, all three realist theories, including the many-worlds interpretation, affirm the reality of quantum entanglement. The reality of quantum entanglement follows from the reality of the quantum state. After all, the quantum state is so successful in application. If one wants to be a realist, it seems that the most natural way is to accept the reality of the quantum state and its consequences. But what is represented by the wave function? What is its nature? How does it relate to things in the physical world? Some recent discussions in philosophy of physics concern exactly those questions.2I think the key to understanding Healey's interpretation is to think of it as a proposal for an alternative foundation of quantum theory—a proposal to use normative facts instead of descriptive facts as the foundation and to replace “what there is” with “what we ought to expect” as what is fundamental to physical theory. Healey's approach would sound alien to many people, since it is not realist in any traditional sense. It is common to think that fundamental physics, and in particular quantum theory, is in the business of saying what the world is like (even though it may be difficult to discern what it says). It is true that we can learn useful advice from a correct physical theory, such as:one should avoid falling into a black holeone should place detectors far away from sources of interferenceone should get away from a nuclear explosionone should be almost certain to see this particle decay in 1 monthA correct physical theory may explain the correctness of useful practical advices such as above. Such advices are objectively correct insofar as they are derived from the conjunction of some accurate descriptions of physical reality and some correct theories of human rationality.3 For Healey, that might be a fine interpretation of classical physics, but that is not the correct interpretation of quantum theory. Quantum theory, for Healey, directly offers authoritative advice about what we should believe and expect, and such advice is not derived in any way from some underlying descriptive facts. Still, such advice can be objectively true (unlike the quantum Bayesian's emphasis on subjective epistemic states). The advice has the form “one should assign quantum state ψ to the physical system s,” and “one should have 0.5 confidence in M,” where M is some kind of magnitude claim about the physical system s. On Healey's interpretation, quantum theory is about such advice, not some descriptions about what nature is like. Although the magnitude claims are descriptions of nature, they are not contained in quantum theory. Instead, they are assumed to be the targets of explanation, and they are somewhat prior to the application of quantum theory. However, they will be suitably constrained by quantum theory, and only a subclass of them will be empirically significant.There are many parts to Healey's proposal. To simplify our discussions below, here is a short summary of the key points (mostly from chapter 5):Advice on state assignments: agents should follow the standard practice in quantum physics and assign an appropriate quantum state (e.g., a wave function ψ) to a system relative to their physical situation.Magnitude claims: a canonical magnitude claim has the form “the value of dynamical variable M on physical system s lies in set Δ.” One example would be “the position of the particle is on the left side of the box.” Magnitude claims are assumed in the theory and they are the targets of explanation. (See chap. 5, sec. 2, and chap. 12, sec. 3, for elaborations.)Empirical significance: a magnitude claim is empirically significant if the relevant quantum state the agent should assign to the system has properly experienced decoherence due to interactions with the environment, where decoherence is a mathematical property of the quantum state. (See chap. 5, sec. 2, and appendix C for more discussions on decoherence.)Advice on credences: agents should adopt credences about empirically significant magnitude claims according to the Born rule (setting one's credence about an empirically significant magnitude claim to be the squared modulo of the appropriate wave function).Descriptions of nature: none of the above, except for the magnitude claims, describes anything in nature. However, magnitude claims are not contained or entailed by quantum theory. They are given prior to the theory.Let us walk through a simple example. Suppose our physicist Alice sets up an experiment for the position measurement of a particle s. Alice wants to explain some magnitude claim about the particle's position (say, that it is on the left side of the box). Quantum theory tells her that she ought to assign a particular wave function ψ to the particle. (The magnitude claim about the particle's position will only become empirically significant when the particle has appropriately interacted with the environment such that different parts of the wave function are almost separated into macroscopically distinct regions as described by decoherence.) Her expectation about the (empirically significant) magnitude claim should match the probability given by the Born rule, which is the squared modulo of the wave function at this moment.Many questions arise at this point. For example: What makes a particular quantum state assignment appropriate? It is standard to assume that a state assignment is appropriate or correct in virtue of representational accuracy, that is, the system indeed has the particular quantum state. But Healey disagrees; it is more or less a basic fact, and if we want to explain it we can appeal to the practice within the scientific community, not some metaphysical facts about what nature is like. It seems to me that on Healey's project the correctness of state assignments is a fundamental normative fact, and any further inquiry about it may be a metanormative project. This is certainly hard to swallow for many realists, but it sheds light on how Healey tries to solve (or dissolve) traditional problems in quantum foundation. In the following, we discuss how Healey applies his interpretation to the quantum measurement problem, quantum entanglement, and Bell nonlocality.The quantum measurement problem is often presented as an inconsistency among three propositions: (1) the quantum state is a complete description of nature; (2) the quantum state always changes according to some unitary equation (e.g., the Schrödinger equation); and (3) experiments have determinate (unique) outcomes. Applying this to the above experimental setup involving Alice, we can derive a contradiction. If the quantum state is complete and it changes unitarily, then quantum theory implies there is no determinate outcome of the position measurement of the particle, since it will always be in a superposition of ψleft and ψright, which is inconsistent with (3)—the particle is measured to be either on the left side or the right side of the box. For Healey, (1) and (2) are simply nonstarters, and (3) is obviously true so that the measurement problem is a nonproblem. (See chap. 6 and especially p. 99.) This is because, in Healey's view, quantum theory is prescriptive, and it is a mistake to think that the quantum state describes the world, much less describes it completely. Moreover, in typical measurement contexts, such as in Alice's case, the appropriate quantum state has decohered after measurement, giving Alice permission to apply the Born rule to make probabilistic predictions. There is a determinate outcome of measurement, but it is not entailed or contained in quantum theory. Instead, determinate outcomes are something confirmed by our direct experiences. Furthermore, if the outcome were not determinate, quantum theory would lose its empirical justification. So in order to apply quantum theory, we have to assume that experimental outcomes are unique and determinate (in typical cases). This, again, is difficult to accept as a realist conception of quantum mechanics. It stands in sharp contrast to other single-world theories such as Bohmian mechanics and spontaneous collapse theories that aim to justify (3) from a physical point of view. They seek to derive (3) as a theorem, by applying the precise mathematical equations to the microscopic ontology.For Healey, quantum entanglement is no longer metaphysically revolutionary. State assignments may be entangled and nonseparable in the sense that the complete state of the system does not supervene on the states of its parts. However, it seems that Healey would say that the failure of supervenience has no metaphysical significance but only normative significance. The advice about which state to assign to the whole system does not supervene, in general, on any advice on what to assign to the parts.Healey thinks that Bell nonlocality becomes more digestible on the prescriptive view (chap. 4). Healey does not dispute Bell's proof as a demonstration of the existence of nonlocal correlations, that is, probabilities of events happening in region A may depend on events happening in region B, which can be arbitrarily far away from A. But Healey does not think nonlocal correlations imply nonlocal influences or causation. What Bell's theorem (and the subsequent empirical tests) really shows is that the quantum probability of an event localized in some region must be “relativized to arbitrarily distant places and times” (71). Here it would seem that Healey's suggestion runs contrary to the kind of normal inferences we routinely make in science. It is standard to infer there are some goings-on in the world that account for the nonlocal correlations—some kind of underlying physical mechanism of nonlocal influence. For example, the mechanism is accounted for, in explicit physical details, by the guidance equation in Bohmian mechanics and the collapse mechanism in spontaneous collapse theories. But that is a mistake from Healey's perspective. Quantum theory postulates such nonlocal correlations as reliable prescriptions for agents who want to use quantum theory successfully, and it is a mistake to try to describe in virtue of what such correlations obtain.What are the reasons for accepting Healey's new interpretation of quantum theory? I think the main reason, for Healey, is that it allows us to avoid the surprising metaphysical consequences such as nonlocality and the reality of the quantum state. But at what cost? If Healey is right, then quantum theory is no longer in the business of describing nature. For most people, I think, that would be too costly.What about alternatives to Healey's theory? How do they compare to it? Healey gives reasons for thinking that they are inadequate (chap. 7). He thinks that spontaneous collapse theories are too speculative, and that they do not qualify as “interpretations.” He suggests that many-worlds theories still face the conceptual problems of probability and emergence of macroscopic branches. He notes that Bohmian mechanics faces problems in relativistic contexts. (Interestingly, Healey's objection to Bohmian mechanics is that it would postulate theoretical structure [e.g., preferred foliation of space-time, particle motion, and the universal wave function] that is empirically inaccessible, even though Healey himself postulates fundamental normative facts to be the foundation of quantum theory when normative facts have controversial epistemological and metaphysical standing in metaethics.) Healey does not discuss whether these are more costly than abandoning the descriptive role of quantum theory, but I think he would think they are. It is important to note that all of them are not only candidate descriptions of nature but are also in principle applicable to the universe as a whole, while Healey's interpretation is neither descriptive of nature nor applicable to the universe as a whole, since on his theory, the application of the Born rule is appropriate only when there is environmental decoherence (and the universe as a whole by definition has no external environment to interact with) (227).4As is the case with Healey's previous books, this one contains many interesting and controversial ideas that will generate much debate in the years to come. Above all, Healey should be applauded for writing a clear, accessible, and engaging introduction to the prescriptive interpretation of quantum theory. There are many issues that Healey discusses at length in the book that I do not have space to comment on. Even though we may not agree on the truth of the matter, we can certainly agree that Healey's book will be useful to anyone interested in the intersection of physics and philosophy.

arXiv:2110.12102•The Philosophical Review•Apr 1, 2020•0 citations

The Nature of Quantum Reality: Physical Reality as a Creation of Consciousness (Part II)

Steven E. Kaufman

What quantum theory has revealed about the nature of reality has remained hidden in plain sight for almost one-hundred years because what quantum theory has revealed about the nature of reality cannot be comprehended in the context of the materialist model and conception of reality in which science presently operates, which materialist model places physical reality at the center of reality and Consciousness at the periphery, as a secondary or derivative reality. What this work will demonstrate, by explaining the heretofore inexplicable basis of the phenomena that lie at the heart of quantum theory, is that it is Consciousness rather than physical reality that lies at the center of reality, and that it is physical reality rather than Consciousness that is a secondary or derivative reality. Specifically, wave-particle duality, quantum uncertainty, quantum non-locality, the probabilistic nature of the wavefunction, and the collapse of the wavefunction, will all be shown to be phenomena that have as their basis the way in which the fundamental Reality of Consciousness, through relation to Itself, creates what it apprehends as physical reality.One of the most important things the phenomena that lie at the heart of quantum theory will be shown to reveal about the nature of reality is that the nature of physical reality is like that of a reflection, and like a reflection, physical reality is able to obscure from view what is actually there, as long as it is mistaken for what is actually there. Thus, in revealing the reflection-like nature of physical reality, the phenomena that lie at the heart of quantum theory indirectly reveal that what is actually there, underlying the reflection that is physical reality, is the non-physical, non-experiential Reality of Consciousness that is, through relation to Itself, both creating and apprehending experiential reality in general and physical reality in particular. Ultimately, understanding the reflection-like nature of physical reality should make it possible for Individuals to understand that what actually Exists directly where they are, where their physical bodies appear to be, is not different in Nature than what actually Exists everywhere else as well, where the rest of physical reality appears to be, thereby disabusing them of the notion that what they are is a physical reality, while at the same time revealing to them their true Nature as Consciousness, which, through relation to that which is also Consciousness, creates what they, as Individual points of Consciousness, apprehend as experiential reality in general and physical reality in particular.Part II of this series of three articles includes: 2. The nature of quantum reality.

Prespacetime journal•Jul 31, 2014•0 citations

Realism and the physical world

A. J. Leggett

I consider the extent to which the applicability of the concept of classical realism is constrained, irrespective of the validity or not of the quantum formalism, by existing experiments both in the EPR–Bell setup, including recent experiments testing ‘nonlocal realistic’ theories, and in the area of ‘macroscopic quantum coherence’. Unless we are willing to sacrifice one or more other intuitively plausible notions such as that of the conventional ‘arrow of time’, it appears impossible, in either context, to maintain the classical notion of realism.

Reports on Progress in Physics•Jan 29, 2008•204 citations
Our notions of what is physically 'real' have long been based on the idea that the real is what is immediately apprehended, that is the local or observable, the physically tangible, though there has always been an alternative philosophical notion that the 'real' is some kind of ontological structure beyond immediate apprehension, and so inaccessible through physics. However, quantum mechanics, with its intrinsic nonlocal correlations, has seemingly left us with a dilemma by showing that fundamental physical theories cannot be both real and local. Reality cannot be reconstructed as a deterministic projection from physical observations. Many people think that the problem lies with quantum mechanics, but, in fact, it is more likely to be a result of unrealistic expectations. We have assumed that fundamental physics ought to be compatible with normal (macroscopic) experience. If, however, we go beyond our current high-level physical theories to the basic elements from which they are constructed, we see that a pattern emerges that gives us a very different and much more coherent understanding of what is meant by physical 'reality'.
In physics, there is the prevailing intuition that we are part of a unique external world, and that the goal of physics is to understand and describe this world. This assumption of the fundamentality of objective reality is often seen as a major prerequisite of any kind of scientific reasoning. However, here I argue that we should consider relaxing this assumption in a specific way in some contexts. Namely, there is a collection of open questions in and around physics that can arguably be addressed in a substantially more consistent and rigorous way if we consider the possibility that the first-person perspective is ultimately more fundamental than our usual notion of external world. These are questions like: which probabilities should an observer assign to future experiences if she is told that she will be simulated on a computer? How should we think of cosmology's Boltzmann brain problem, and what can we learn from the fact that measurements in quantum theory seem to do more than just reveal preexisting properties? Why are there simple computable laws of physics in the first place? This note summarizes a longer companion paper which constructs a mathematically rigorous theory along those lines, suggesting a simple and unified framework (rooted in algorithmic information theory) to address questions like those above. It is not meant as a "theory of everything" (in fact, it predicts its own limitations), but it shows how a notion of objective external world, looking very much like our own, can provably emerge from a starting point in which the first-person perspective is primary, without apriori assumptions on the existence of "laws" or a "physical world". While the ideas here are perfectly compatible with physics as we know it, they imply some quite surprising predictions and suggest that we may want to substantially revise the way we think about some foundational questions.
The assumption of an objective world underlying all our experiences is deeply embedded in our everyday thinking and in our language, and has been an unquestioned presupposition of the scientific enterprise for at least four centuries. Yet it is well known that quantum physics raises some highly problematic questions in this respect, questions that are still open, almost a century from the inception of the theory. I would like to propose that these questions stem from deep philosophical assumptions and can be answered in a much more coherent way if we understand the notion of an objective world not as a primary reality, but as an emergent aspect of a primary process that can be described as “experiencing”. A coherent description of the appearance of an objective world in the process of experiencing relies on a certain understanding of what is technically known as the “quantum measurement problem”, i.e. the description of the process of observation in quantum physics, which is the key problematic aspect of the theory. I will propose that the basic features that characterize a quantum observation have a much wider scope, and describe in fact all acquisition of information by an “embodied observer”, in short all experiencing happening in the world. By applying to this larger context work I have done in the more technical frame of the quantum measurement problem it can be shown that the nature of the process of experiencing is such as to inevitably generate the appearance of an objective world. Thus the objectivity of the world, although not primary and ultimately real, is an intrinsic consequence of our “experiential embodiment”, i.e. of the fact that we are in the world and all our experiences correspond to physical happenings in the world. When examined in this perspective, the “paradoxes” of quantum physics are an invitation to abandon the metaphysical assumption of the primacy of the objective dimension of reality. A philosophical position much more in tune with quantum physics views the process of experiencing as the primary source of both subject and object, consciousness and world.
The concept of "reality" is often raised in the context of philosophical foundations of physics or interpretations of quantum mechanics. When this term is so raised, it is a warning to me that I am about to be led down a rabbit hole. Such diversions usually lead nowhere unless you consider endless discussions of Schrodinger's cat, wave function collapse, quantum non-locality, and parallel universes to be useful. A prime example is the famous Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen paper wherein they concluded that the quantum wave function cannot provide a complete description of physical reality. In this essay I suggest that, in physics discourse, the term "reality" should be avoided at all costs.
In this thought-provoking book, Richard Healey proposes a new interpretation of quantum theory inspired by pragmatist philosophy. Healey puts forward the interpretation as an alternative to realist quantum theories on the one hand such as Bohmian mechanics, spontaneous collapse theories, and many-worlds interpretations, which are different proposals for describing what the quantum world is like and what the basic laws of physics are, and nonrealist interpretations on the other hand such as quantum Bayesianism, which proposes to understand quantum theory as describing agents’ subjective epistemic states. The central idea of Healey's proposal is to understand quantum theory as providing not a description of the physical world but a set of authoritative and objectively correct prescriptions about how agents should act. The book provides a detailed development and defense of that idea, and it contains interesting discussions about a wide range of philosophical issues such as representation, probability, explanation, causation, objectivity, meaning, and fundamentality.Healey's project is at the intersection of physics and philosophy. The book is divided into two parts. Part 1 of the book discusses the foundational questions in quantum theory from the perspective of the prescriptive interpretation. In part 2, Healey discusses the philosophical implications of the view. Both parts are written in a way that is largely accessible to nonspecialists. In this brief book review, I will focus on two questions:1. How does Healey's interpretation work?2. What are the costs and benefits of accepting his interpretation?To understand Healey's ideas, we should provide some background for nonspecialists. Quantum theory has been subject to intense scrutiny and philosophical investigations in the last century. There has been enormous progress on several fronts, including the empirical tests about Bell inequalities and the development of several realist interpretations. It has been proposed that what is revolutionary about quantum theory and what sets it apart from classical physics are quantum entanglement and quantum nonlocality. For many realists, it seems that quantum theory describes a different kind of ontology and a different kind of laws of nature. They are introduced briefly below.Quantum entanglement describes the phenomenon that some physical systems have irreducibly holistic properties that are not the logical sums of the properties of the parts. For example, two electrons A and B are entangled when the pair has a quantum state that cannot be reduced to some combination of the state of A and the state of B. Quantum entanglement, a manifestation of quantum nonseparability, is reflected in the way quantum states, which are typically represented by “wave functions,” get assigned to different systems.Quantum nonlocality (also called “spooky action at a distance”) describes the phenomenon that events that are arbitrarily far apart can influence one another and the strength of the influence does not depend on their distance. Quantum nonlocality is a strange feature, and its falsity was assumed in the 1935 argument by Einstein, Podolsky, and Rosen for the incompleteness of quantum theory. Remarkably, Bell (1964) proved that if the quantum predictions are accurate, then nature is nonlocal. Subsequent experimental tests since the 1980s have verified the quantum predictions to a high level of precision, reinforcing the conclusion that nature is nonlocal.1Among the realist theories of quantum mechanics, Bohmian mechanics and spontaneous collapse theories are nonlocal. Moreover, all three realist theories, including the many-worlds interpretation, affirm the reality of quantum entanglement. The reality of quantum entanglement follows from the reality of the quantum state. After all, the quantum state is so successful in application. If one wants to be a realist, it seems that the most natural way is to accept the reality of the quantum state and its consequences. But what is represented by the wave function? What is its nature? How does it relate to things in the physical world? Some recent discussions in philosophy of physics concern exactly those questions.2I think the key to understanding Healey's interpretation is to think of it as a proposal for an alternative foundation of quantum theory—a proposal to use normative facts instead of descriptive facts as the foundation and to replace “what there is” with “what we ought to expect” as what is fundamental to physical theory. Healey's approach would sound alien to many people, since it is not realist in any traditional sense. It is common to think that fundamental physics, and in particular quantum theory, is in the business of saying what the world is like (even though it may be difficult to discern what it says). It is true that we can learn useful advice from a correct physical theory, such as:one should avoid falling into a black holeone should place detectors far away from sources of interferenceone should get away from a nuclear explosionone should be almost certain to see this particle decay in 1 monthA correct physical theory may explain the correctness of useful practical advices such as above. Such advices are objectively correct insofar as they are derived from the conjunction of some accurate descriptions of physical reality and some correct theories of human rationality.3 For Healey, that might be a fine interpretation of classical physics, but that is not the correct interpretation of quantum theory. Quantum theory, for Healey, directly offers authoritative advice about what we should believe and expect, and such advice is not derived in any way from some underlying descriptive facts. Still, such advice can be objectively true (unlike the quantum Bayesian's emphasis on subjective epistemic states). The advice has the form “one should assign quantum state ψ to the physical system s,” and “one should have 0.5 confidence in M,” where M is some kind of magnitude claim about the physical system s. On Healey's interpretation, quantum theory is about such advice, not some descriptions about what nature is like. Although the magnitude claims are descriptions of nature, they are not contained in quantum theory. Instead, they are assumed to be the targets of explanation, and they are somewhat prior to the application of quantum theory. However, they will be suitably constrained by quantum theory, and only a subclass of them will be empirically significant.There are many parts to Healey's proposal. To simplify our discussions below, here is a short summary of the key points (mostly from chapter 5):Advice on state assignments: agents should follow the standard practice in quantum physics and assign an appropriate quantum state (e.g., a wave function ψ) to a system relative to their physical situation.Magnitude claims: a canonical magnitude claim has the form “the value of dynamical variable M on physical system s lies in set Δ.” One example would be “the position of the particle is on the left side of the box.” Magnitude claims are assumed in the theory and they are the targets of explanation. (See chap. 5, sec. 2, and chap. 12, sec. 3, for elaborations.)Empirical significance: a magnitude claim is empirically significant if the relevant quantum state the agent should assign to the system has properly experienced decoherence due to interactions with the environment, where decoherence is a mathematical property of the quantum state. (See chap. 5, sec. 2, and appendix C for more discussions on decoherence.)Advice on credences: agents should adopt credences about empirically significant magnitude claims according to the Born rule (setting one's credence about an empirically significant magnitude claim to be the squared modulo of the appropriate wave function).Descriptions of nature: none of the above, except for the magnitude claims, describes anything in nature. However, magnitude claims are not contained or entailed by quantum theory. They are given prior to the theory.Let us walk through a simple example. Suppose our physicist Alice sets up an experiment for the position measurement of a particle s. Alice wants to explain some magnitude claim about the particle's position (say, that it is on the left side of the box). Quantum theory tells her that she ought to assign a particular wave function ψ to the particle. (The magnitude claim about the particle's position will only become empirically significant when the particle has appropriately interacted with the environment such that different parts of the wave function are almost separated into macroscopically distinct regions as described by decoherence.) Her expectation about the (empirically significant) magnitude claim should match the probability given by the Born rule, which is the squared modulo of the wave function at this moment.Many questions arise at this point. For example: What makes a particular quantum state assignment appropriate? It is standard to assume that a state assignment is appropriate or correct in virtue of representational accuracy, that is, the system indeed has the particular quantum state. But Healey disagrees; it is more or less a basic fact, and if we want to explain it we can appeal to the practice within the scientific community, not some metaphysical facts about what nature is like. It seems to me that on Healey's project the correctness of state assignments is a fundamental normative fact, and any further inquiry about it may be a metanormative project. This is certainly hard to swallow for many realists, but it sheds light on how Healey tries to solve (or dissolve) traditional problems in quantum foundation. In the following, we discuss how Healey applies his interpretation to the quantum measurement problem, quantum entanglement, and Bell nonlocality.The quantum measurement problem is often presented as an inconsistency among three propositions: (1) the quantum state is a complete description of nature; (2) the quantum state always changes according to some unitary equation (e.g., the Schrödinger equation); and (3) experiments have determinate (unique) outcomes. Applying this to the above experimental setup involving Alice, we can derive a contradiction. If the quantum state is complete and it changes unitarily, then quantum theory implies there is no determinate outcome of the position measurement of the particle, since it will always be in a superposition of ψleft and ψright, which is inconsistent with (3)—the particle is measured to be either on the left side or the right side of the box. For Healey, (1) and (2) are simply nonstarters, and (3) is obviously true so that the measurement problem is a nonproblem. (See chap. 6 and especially p. 99.) This is because, in Healey's view, quantum theory is prescriptive, and it is a mistake to think that the quantum state describes the world, much less describes it completely. Moreover, in typical measurement contexts, such as in Alice's case, the appropriate quantum state has decohered after measurement, giving Alice permission to apply the Born rule to make probabilistic predictions. There is a determinate outcome of measurement, but it is not entailed or contained in quantum theory. Instead, determinate outcomes are something confirmed by our direct experiences. Furthermore, if the outcome were not determinate, quantum theory would lose its empirical justification. So in order to apply quantum theory, we have to assume that experimental outcomes are unique and determinate (in typical cases). This, again, is difficult to accept as a realist conception of quantum mechanics. It stands in sharp contrast to other single-world theories such as Bohmian mechanics and spontaneous collapse theories that aim to justify (3) from a physical point of view. They seek to derive (3) as a theorem, by applying the precise mathematical equations to the microscopic ontology.For Healey, quantum entanglement is no longer metaphysically revolutionary. State assignments may be entangled and nonseparable in the sense that the complete state of the system does not supervene on the states of its parts. However, it seems that Healey would say that the failure of supervenience has no metaphysical significance but only normative significance. The advice about which state to assign to the whole system does not supervene, in general, on any advice on what to assign to the parts.Healey thinks that Bell nonlocality becomes more digestible on the prescriptive view (chap. 4). Healey does not dispute Bell's proof as a demonstration of the existence of nonlocal correlations, that is, probabilities of events happening in region A may depend on events happening in region B, which can be arbitrarily far away from A. But Healey does not think nonlocal correlations imply nonlocal influences or causation. What Bell's theorem (and the subsequent empirical tests) really shows is that the quantum probability of an event localized in some region must be “relativized to arbitrarily distant places and times” (71). Here it would seem that Healey's suggestion runs contrary to the kind of normal inferences we routinely make in science. It is standard to infer there are some goings-on in the world that account for the nonlocal correlations—some kind of underlying physical mechanism of nonlocal influence. For example, the mechanism is accounted for, in explicit physical details, by the guidance equation in Bohmian mechanics and the collapse mechanism in spontaneous collapse theories. But that is a mistake from Healey's perspective. Quantum theory postulates such nonlocal correlations as reliable prescriptions for agents who want to use quantum theory successfully, and it is a mistake to try to describe in virtue of what such correlations obtain.What are the reasons for accepting Healey's new interpretation of quantum theory? I think the main reason, for Healey, is that it allows us to avoid the surprising metaphysical consequences such as nonlocality and the reality of the quantum state. But at what cost? If Healey is right, then quantum theory is no longer in the business of describing nature. For most people, I think, that would be too costly.What about alternatives to Healey's theory? How do they compare to it? Healey gives reasons for thinking that they are inadequate (chap. 7). He thinks that spontaneous collapse theories are too speculative, and that they do not qualify as “interpretations.” He suggests that many-worlds theories still face the conceptual problems of probability and emergence of macroscopic branches. He notes that Bohmian mechanics faces problems in relativistic contexts. (Interestingly, Healey's objection to Bohmian mechanics is that it would postulate theoretical structure [e.g., preferred foliation of space-time, particle motion, and the universal wave function] that is empirically inaccessible, even though Healey himself postulates fundamental normative facts to be the foundation of quantum theory when normative facts have controversial epistemological and metaphysical standing in metaethics.) Healey does not discuss whether these are more costly than abandoning the descriptive role of quantum theory, but I think he would think they are. It is important to note that all of them are not only candidate descriptions of nature but are also in principle applicable to the universe as a whole, while Healey's interpretation is neither descriptive of nature nor applicable to the universe as a whole, since on his theory, the application of the Born rule is appropriate only when there is environmental decoherence (and the universe as a whole by definition has no external environment to interact with) (227).4As is the case with Healey's previous books, this one contains many interesting and controversial ideas that will generate much debate in the years to come. Above all, Healey should be applauded for writing a clear, accessible, and engaging introduction to the prescriptive interpretation of quantum theory. There are many issues that Healey discusses at length in the book that I do not have space to comment on. Even though we may not agree on the truth of the matter, we can certainly agree that Healey's book will be useful to anyone interested in the intersection of physics and philosophy.
What quantum theory has revealed about the nature of reality has remained hidden in plain sight for almost one-hundred years because what quantum theory has revealed about the nature of reality cannot be comprehended in the context of the materialist model and conception of reality in which science presently operates, which materialist model places physical reality at the center of reality and Consciousness at the periphery, as a secondary or derivative reality. What this work will demonstrate, by explaining the heretofore inexplicable basis of the phenomena that lie at the heart of quantum theory, is that it is Consciousness rather than physical reality that lies at the center of reality, and that it is physical reality rather than Consciousness that is a secondary or derivative reality. Specifically, wave-particle duality, quantum uncertainty, quantum non-locality, the probabilistic nature of the wavefunction, and the collapse of the wavefunction, will all be shown to be phenomena that have as their basis the way in which the fundamental Reality of Consciousness, through relation to Itself, creates what it apprehends as physical reality.One of the most important things the phenomena that lie at the heart of quantum theory will be shown to reveal about the nature of reality is that the nature of physical reality is like that of a reflection, and like a reflection, physical reality is able to obscure from view what is actually there, as long as it is mistaken for what is actually there. Thus, in revealing the reflection-like nature of physical reality, the phenomena that lie at the heart of quantum theory indirectly reveal that what is actually there, underlying the reflection that is physical reality, is the non-physical, non-experiential Reality of Consciousness that is, through relation to Itself, both creating and apprehending experiential reality in general and physical reality in particular. Ultimately, understanding the reflection-like nature of physical reality should make it possible for Individuals to understand that what actually Exists directly where they are, where their physical bodies appear to be, is not different in Nature than what actually Exists everywhere else as well, where the rest of physical reality appears to be, thereby disabusing them of the notion that what they are is a physical reality, while at the same time revealing to them their true Nature as Consciousness, which, through relation to that which is also Consciousness, creates what they, as Individual points of Consciousness, apprehend as experiential reality in general and physical reality in particular.Part II of this series of three articles includes: 2. The nature of quantum reality.
I consider the extent to which the applicability of the concept of classical realism is constrained, irrespective of the validity or not of the quantum formalism, by existing experiments both in the EPR–Bell setup, including recent experiments testing ‘nonlocal realistic’ theories, and in the area of ‘macroscopic quantum coherence’. Unless we are willing to sacrifice one or more other intuitively plausible notions such as that of the conventional ‘arrow of time’, it appears impossible, in either context, to maintain the classical notion of realism.