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The International journal of networked and distributed computing

Integrating Q1RAM into Quantum Teleportation and Superdense Protocols: A Framework for Large-Scale Quantum Communications

Mohammed Zidan, Ahmed M. Eisa, Hichem Eleuch, Montasir Qasymeh

Published Sep 7, 2026• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Quantum teleportation and superdense coding are two different protocols that were developed to transmit a limited number of qubits and two classical bits, respectively. Therefore, they are inefficient for transmitting messages containing a massive number of individual qubits or classical bits. Thus, it is necessary to scale up these two protocols in larger systems to enable them to transmit massive messages. To achieve this goal, it is essential to integrate each of these two protocols within architectures that contain a quantum main memory that functions as a buffer capable of storing both quantum and classical data and managing a massive amount of data efficiently during transmission operations. Q1RAM is a cutting-edge quantum main memory and the fastest quantum main memory available, as it has a time complexity of $$O(1)$$ for accessing memory locations. In this paper, two architectural schematics are proposed based on integrating Q1RAM as a core component with the quantum teleportation and superdense coding protocols. The first architectural scheme is developed to scale up the quantum teleportation protocol, making it efficient for transmitting massive messages of separable individual qubits. The second architectural schema is proposed, consisting of two Q1RAM chips, two quantum processing units, two of the classical RAMs, and a quantum gateway. This proposed schema is developed to scale up the superdense coding protocol so that it can transmit massive classical messages containing large amounts of data. The experimental simulation results validate the architectural schematics for scaling up the quantum teleportation and the superdense coding protocols for large-scale quantum communications.

DOI
10.1007/s44227-026-00110-6

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Quantum teleportation and superdense coding are two different protocols that were developed to transmit a limited number of qubits and two classical bits, respectively. Therefore, they are inefficient for transmitting messages containing a massive number of individual qubits or classical bits. Thus, it is necessary to scale up these two protocols in larger systems to enable them to transmit massive messages. To achieve this goal, it is essential to integrate each of these two protocols within architectures that contain a quantum main memory that functions as a buffer capable of storing both quantum and classical data and managing a massive amount of data efficiently during transmission operations. Q1RAM is a cutting-edge quantum main memory and the fastest quantum main memory available, as it has a time complexity of O(1)O(1)O(1) for accessing memory locations. In this paper, two architectural schematics are proposed based on integrating Q1RAM as a core component with the quantum teleportation and superdense coding protocols. The first architectural scheme is developed to scale up the quantum teleportation protocol, making it efficient for transmitting massive messages of separable individual qubits. The second architectural schema is proposed, consisting of two Q1RAM chips, two quantum processing units, two of the classical RAMs, and a quantum gateway. This proposed schema is developed to scale up the superdense coding protocol so that it can transmit massive classical messages containing large amounts of data. The experimental simulation results validate the architectural schematics for scaling up the quantum teleportation and the superdense coding protocols for large-scale quantum communications.
We investigate how quantum coherence scales and is redistributed in quantum communication protocols, using superdense coding and quantum teleportation as paradigmatic case studies. Employing the relative entropy of coherence as a circuit-level resource measure, we show that multipartite resource states relevant to generalized superdense coding can enable scalable communication while exhibiting only logarithmic or even constant coherence growth, depending on their entanglement structure. In sharp contrast, quantum teleportation displays an unavoidable, protocol-induced coherence cost that grows linearly with the number of teleported qubits and is independent of the input state. Through a stage-resolved analysis of the teleportation circuit, we separate protocol-generated coherence from message-dependent contributions and identify a universal two-bit coherence offset per teleported qubit at the maximal-coherence stage. We further demonstrate explicitly that this extensive intermediate coherence generation is fully consistent with information-theoretic bounds, including the Holevo limit, and does not correspond to an increase in accessible classical information.
Abstract We investigate how quantum coherence scales and is redistributed in quantum communication protocols, us-ing superdense coding and quantum teleportation as paradigmatic case studies. Employing the relative entropyof coherence as a circuit-level resource measure, we show that multipartite resource states relevant to general-ized superdense coding can enable scalable communication while exhibiting only logarithmic or even constantcoherence growth, depending on their entanglement structure. In sharp contrast, quantum teleportation displaysan unavoidable, protocol-induced coherence cost that grows linearly with the number of teleported qubits andis independent of the input state. Through a stage-resolved analysis of the teleportation circuit, we separateprotocol-generated coherence from message-dependent contributions and identify a universal two-bit coherenceoffset per teleported qubit at the maximal-coherence stage. We further demonstrate explicitly that this extensiveintermediate coherence generation is fully consistent with information-theoretic bounds, including the Holevolimit, and does not correspond to an increase in accessible classical information.
We are now ready to look at our first protocols for quantum information. In this section, we examine two communication protocols which can be implemented using the tools we have developed in the preceding sections. These protocols are known as superdense coding and quantum teleportation. Both are inherently quantum: there are no classical protocols which behave in the same way. Both involve two parties who wish to perform some communication task between them. In descriptions of such communication protocols (especially in cryptography), it is very common to name the two parties ‘Alice’ and ‘Bob’, for convenience. We will follow this tradition. We will repeatedly refer to communication channels. A quantum communication channel refers to a communication line (e.g. a fiberoptic cable), which can carry qubits between two remote locations. A classical communication channel is one which can carry classical bits (but not qubits).1 The protocols (like many in quantum communication) require that Alice and Bob initially share an entangled pair of qubits in the Bell state The above Bell state is sometimes referred to as an EPR pair. Such a state would have to be created ahead of time, when the qubits are in a lab together and can be made to interact in a way which will give rise to the entanglement between them. After the state is created, Alice and Bob each take one of the two qubits away with them. Alternatively, a third party could create the EPR pair and give one particle to Alice and the other to Bob. If they are careful not to let them interact with the environment, or any other quantum system, Alice and Bob’s joint state will remain entangled. This entanglement becomes a resource which Alice and Bob can use to achieve protocols such as the following. Suppose Alice wishes to send Bob two classical bits of information. Superdense coding is a way of achieving this task over a quantum channel, requiring only that Alice send one qubit to Bob. Alice and Bob must initially share the Bell state Suppose Alice is in possession of the first qubit and Bob the second qubit.
Superdense coding is a quantum communication protocol that enables the transmission of more than one classical bit of information per qubit, using entangled states. While superdense coding with 2-qubits is well understood and directly maps to the Bell states, the same cannot be said for higher numbers of qubits. This project aims to develop an algorithm for superdense coding using a larger number of qubits, while analyzing how the capacity for information transmission scales with qubit count. Additionally, we will determine the error thresholds for accurately reconstructing the encoded information and investigate how error scales as the number of qubits increases. Gaining a deeper understanding of superdense coding has significant applications in quantum cryptography, as superdense coding schemes can be used to set up quantum secure direct communication (QSDC) protocols.
Abstract This laboratory work presents a practical implementation of quantum teleportation and superdense coding using the Qiskit framework. The material is based on educational resources developed by the International Quantum Center at CERN (Switzerland) and is designed to provide hands-on experience with multi-qubit quantum protocols and hybrid quantum-classical workflows. In Laboratory Work No. 5, participants implement the quantum teleportation protocol step by step. The procedure begins with the preparation of a randomly generated qubit by directly assigning complex probability amplitudes. The state vector is normalized to ensure physical validity, defining the amplitudes corresponding to the computational basis states ∣0⟩|0\rangle∣0⟩ and ∣1⟩|1\rangle∣1⟩. Once the qubit is prepared for teleportation, an entangled Bell pair is generated to establish a shared quantum channel between two parties, conventionally referred to as Alice and Bob. The protocol proceeds with joint operations and measurement of two classical bits on Alice’s side. The measurement outcomes determine conditional unitary corrections applied to Bob’s qubit, enabling the reconstruction of the original quantum state without physically transmitting the qubit itself. The laboratory exercise includes the construction of a circuit with separate quantum registers and classical bits, explicit amplitude assignment for Alice’s qubit, and verification of successful state transfer through measurement statistics. In addition to teleportation, the conceptual framework of superdense coding is discussed as a complementary protocol demonstrating how entanglement enhances classical information capacity. Together, these experiments illustrate the operational role of entanglement as a quantum communication resource. The guide emphasizes practical circuit design, normalization of quantum states, entanglement generation, conditional gate operations, and execution on both simulators and real quantum hardware. Through this laboratory work, participants gain experimental insight into two cornerstone protocols of quantum information science.
This study presents a generalized nnn--bit superdense coding protocol that enables the transmission of n classical bits of information using an entangled nnn--qubit quantum system and the transmission of n−1n-1n−1 qubits. The protocol involves creating a maximally entangled nnn--qubit GHZ state, encoding the classical message with Pauli--Z and Pauli--X gates, and then transmitting and decoding the message via quantum communication, quantum operations, and measurements. The key novelty of this work is an explicit, scalable nnn--bit encoding routine, realized on the GHZ channel with a low--depth encoding layer using only single--qubit Pauli--X and Pauli--Z operations. The protocol was tested on real quantum hardware using Qiskit 2.0 and the IBM--Fez quantum computer for message lengths of 4, 6, 8, and 10 bits, as a circuit--level proof of concept on a single processor; the physical transmission of qubits between the parties was not implemented. Results show that success rates decrease as message length, transpiled circuit depth and gate count increase; the latter two are set mainly by transpilation rather than by the encoding itself. A mutual information analysis shows that the transmitted information exceeds the classical bound of n−1n-1n−1 bits only for short messages. Strategies to improve performance include sending messages in shorter segments and advances in qubit coherence and gate fidelity. This work offers a practical and easily scalable quantum communication protocol with potential applications in quantum networks and communication systems.