Blockchain technology’s cryptographic foundations face threats from advancing quantum computing, mainly through Shor’s and Grover’s algorithms. In this work project, we conduct a systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis, to review the knowledge on the risk of the development of quantum computing for blockchain technology. In particular, we review the publications from 2019 to 2025 across Scopus and EBSCO to identify the research themes. While theoretical research is advancing, the reviewed literature reveals a scarcity of studies documenting practical implementation, standardization, and governance frameworks. This study identifies the need for efforts in developing transition roadmaps and frameworks, to assess crypto agility.
Blockchain technology’s cryptographic foundations face threats from advancing quantum computing, mainly through Shor’s and Grover’s algorithms. In this work project, we conduct a systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis, to review the knowledge on the risk of the development of quantum computing for blockchain technology. In particular, we review the publications from 2019 to 2025 across Scopus and EBSCO to identify the research themes. While theoretical research is advancing, the reviewed literature reveals a scarcity of studies documenting practical implementation, standardization, and governance frameworks. This study identifies the need for efforts in developing transition roadmaps and frameworks, to assess crypto agility.
With the advent of quantum computing, cryptocurrencies that rely on blockchain technology face mounting cryptographic vulnerabilities. This paper presents a comprehensive literature review evaluating how quantum algorithms—specifically Shor’s and Grover’s—could disrupt the foundational security mechanisms of cryptocurrencies. Shor’s algorithm poses a threat to public-key cryptographic schemes by enabling efficient factorization and discrete logarithm solving, thereby endangering digital signature systems. Grover’s algorithm undermines hash-based functions, increasing the feasibility of 51% attacks and hash collisions. By examining the internal mechanisms of major cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin, Ethereum, Litecoin, Monero, and Zcash, this review identifies specific vulnerabilities in transaction and consensus processes. It further analyses the current hardware limitations of quantum systems and estimates when such attacks could become feasible. In anticipation, it investigates countermeasures including Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC), Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), and protocol-level modifications such as memory-intensive proof-of-work algorithms and multi-signature schemes. The discussion integrates recent advancements in quantum error correction, hardware scalability, and NIST-standardized cryptographic algorithms. This review concludes that while quantum computers are not yet advanced enough to pose an immediate threat, proactive integration of quantum-resistant solutions is essential. The findings underscore the urgent need for cryptocurrencies to adopt post-quantum cryptographic standards to preserve the decentralized trust, integrity, and security that define blockchain-based digital cryptocurrencies.
Quantum computing poses distinct risks to blockchain security: Shor’s algorithm threatens signatures associated with exposed public keys, while Grover’s algorithm reduces the security margin of hash-based mechanisms. This systematic mapping study examines quantum-resistant blockchain defenses and the evidence supporting their practical use. A total of 387 peer-reviewed primary studies published between 2018 and 2026 were identified through IEEE Xplore, the MDPI journal collection, and citation searching, and classified by contribution type and evidence maturity. The findings show that post-quantum cryptographic constructions dominate the literature (56.1%), followed by quantum-native designs (26.6%) and hybrid migration approaches (13.7%). Despite substantial research on these defenses, only 16.0% of the studies report real-platform laboratory experiments, and 1.3% reach public-testnet evaluation. Hybrid migration studies demonstrate greater progress toward platform-level evaluation than other defense categories, but practical validation remains limited. These findings highlight the gap between proposed quantum-resistant mechanisms and their evaluation under realistic blockchain conditions, emphasizing the need for reproducible system-level testing and migration strategies addressing interoperability, governance, and operational continuity.
Quantum computing poses a significant threat to blockchain systems that rely on elliptic curve cryptography and other classical security mechanisms. Algorithms such as Shor’s and Grover’s can weaken or completely break the cryptographic foundations of current blockchain networks, exposing them to risks including private key recovery, transaction forgery, consensus manipulation, and harvest-now-decrypt-later attacks. This paper presents a systems framework for designing quantum-resilient blockchains by integrating post-quantum cryptographic standards, threat modeling, architectural redesign, governance mechanisms, and migration planning. The study evaluates major post-quantum cryptographic primitives, assesses their suitability for blockchain environments, and proposes a layered architecture grounded in crypto-agility, defense-in-depth, and forward secrecy. A structured migration strategy is also introduced to support the transition of existing blockchain networks toward post-quantum security while maintaining operational continuity and stakeholder trust. The framework provides practical guidance for researchers, developers, and policymakers preparing blockchain ecosystems for the post-quantum era.
As blockchain technologies continue to evolve, interoperability between different blockchain networks has become a critical aspect for enabling seamless communication and data exchange across decentralized platforms. However, the advent of cryptographically relevant quantum computers poses a significant threat to the security foundations that underpin these cross-chain interactions. This paper presents an in-depth review of the vulnerabilities faced by blockchain interoperability mechanisms during the quantum era, specifically by the potential quantum computing threat against widely used cryptographic primitives, namely elliptic curve cryptography and hash functions. It delves into how quantum attacks, specifically Shor's and Grover's algorithms, would compromise the integrity of cross-chain protocols and thus disrupt the security of decentralized exchanges, smart contracts, and atomic swaps. We also review current research activities and suggest possible mitigation strategies, such as post-quantum cryptographic solutions, to ensure the future of blockchain interoperability. This paper is meant to emphasize the need for the blockchain community to prepare for quantum threats and ensure the long-term viability and security of decentralized systems across multiple chains.
The advent of Quantum Computing (QC) poses significant threats to the cryptographic foundations of Blockchain (BC) systems, as quantum algorithms like Shor’s and Grover’s undermine the security of public-key cryptography and hash functions. This research conducts a comprehensive risk assessment of quantum vulnerabilities across critical BC components, including consensus mechanisms, smart contracts, and digital wallets. Leveraging the STRIDE threat modeling framework, we analyze threat vectors specific to QC, identifying key areas most susceptible to quantum-enabled attacks, such as private key compromise, consensus disruptions, and smart contract integrity risks. Our contributions provide actionable mitigation strategies, including a detailed security blueprint for quantum resilience, encompassing the integration of Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and the adoption of quantum-resistant hash functions. We offer implementation best practices, focusing on key management, secure coding, and network security to strengthen BC components against quantum threats. To mitigate the risk of QC during transition from classical to quantum-resistant BCs, we present two hybrid BC architectures. As part of a comprehensive quantum resilience strategy, these architectures facilitate a secure and scalable migration by integrating platform-specific adaptations that balance security, adaptability, and operational efficiency. Our analysis extends to major BC platforms, including Bitcoin, Ethereum, Ripple, Litecoin, and Zcash, providing platform-specific vulnerability assessments and highlighting unique weaknesses in the quantum era. By identifying vulnerabilities, developing proactive defense strategies, and adopting a structured hybrid migration approach, this research equips BC stakeholders with a robust framework to achieve long-term quantum resilience. Finally, we explore challenges and research directions for integrating emerging technologies, including quantum machine learning, Artificial Intelligence (AI), and Web3, with BC systems, and discuss new threats that may arise from this convergence in the QC era.
Quantum computers are expected to reduce the security of current cryptographic systems. One technology that relies on these cryptographic systems is the blockchain. For companies adopting blockchain-based solutions, quantum computing therefore poses a risk that needs to be considered in long-term strategic planning. Grover’s and Shor’s quantum algorithms, which attack the cryptographic principles on which the blockchain is built, currently pose the biggest threat to the blockchain. To counteract these threats, we found different solutions, of which the most promising is post-quantum cryptography. This paper’s objective is to describe the dangers quantum computing hold for the blockchain and, by reviewing existing literature, to present the current state of research on countermeasures to quantum computing. Finally, we conclude that, based on current knowledge, quantum computing does not mean the end to the blockchain.