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HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION OF AN EFFICIENT FREQUENCY COMB GENERATOR FOR MICROWAVE KINETIC INDUCTANCE DETECTORS

Frank Danso

Published Jan 1, 2025• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

The frequency comb generator is an essential component in the readout of superconducting detectors. This component is responsible for generating the resonant frequencies necessary to detect photon interaction with the detectors. This component however has not received the much needed attention in terms of readout systems optimization. Conventional implementations rely on either inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) engines, which scale poorly in power with increasing frequency resolution requirement but allow flexible tone updates, or lookup tables (LUTs), which demand large memory for high frequency resolution. Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) are superconducting detectors which have gained significant interest for cryogenic astrophysical instrumentation due to their high sensitivity, intrinsic multiplexing capability, and scalable fabrication. However, their simplified detector architecture shifts complexity to the readout electronics, making the development of compact, low-power frequency comb generators especially valuable. The design of the compact frequency comb generator targets applications involving MKIDs which typically detect photons in the submilliter bands. In this thesis, I present the design and hardware realization of a compact frequency comb generator. The design has been verified on an Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) using the Xilinx's RFSoC ZCU111 evaluation board. The architecture consumes less than 5% of FPGA resources and less than 5 Watts of power with the capability of handling multiple independent channels of the compact frequency comb generator on the evaluation board. These results demonstrate the potential of this approach to enable scalable, energy-efficient MKID readout systems for large-format detector arrays in next-generation cryogenic experiments.

DOI
10.23860/thesis-2679

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The frequency comb generator is an essential component in the readout of superconducting detectors. This component is responsible for generating the resonant frequencies necessary to detect photon interaction with the detectors. This component however has not received the much needed attention in terms of readout systems optimization. Conventional implementations rely on either inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) engines, which scale poorly in power with increasing frequency resolution requirement but allow flexible tone updates, or lookup tables (LUTs), which demand large memory for high frequency resolution. Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) are superconducting detectors which have gained significant interest for cryogenic astrophysical instrumentation due to their high sensitivity, intrinsic multiplexing capability, and scalable fabrication. However, their simplified detector architecture shifts complexity to the readout electronics, making the development of compact, low-power frequency comb generators especially valuable. The design of the compact frequency comb generator targets applications involving MKIDs which typically detect photons in the submilliter bands. In this thesis, I present the design and hardware realization of a compact frequency comb generator. The design has been verified on an Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) using the Xilinx's RFSoC ZCU111 evaluation board. The architecture consumes less than 5% of FPGA resources and less than 5 Watts of power with the capability of handling multiple independent channels of the compact frequency comb generator on the evaluation board. These results demonstrate the potential of this approach to enable scalable, energy-efficient MKID readout systems for large-format detector arrays in next-generation cryogenic experiments.
MKIDs are sensitive superconducting detectors that shift the phase of resonant frequencies in response to photon strikes. A large-format array with several hundreds of thousands of resonators is required for large-scale submillimeter wave observations in space, but it encounters multiple challenges, the biggest of which is the absence of compact, energy-efficient, and radiation-tolerant readout solutions. Of multiple functions in the MKID readout, the new frequency comb generator is presented in this paper, featuring the low on-chip memory requirement while promising the relaxed frequency resolution in the readout, and enabling the ASIC implementation of a compact, energy-efficient frequency comb generation solution for large-format MKIDs. The proposed comb generator achieved a 128 times reduction in the on-chip memory requirement and 80 times tone information compression. The proposed comb generation method was verified through simulation using MATLAB/Simulink.
This report covers work done at Data Processing and Readout System Development Laboratory at Nazarbayev University implementing data processing algorithm for readout electronics. Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) are photon detectors based on superconducting resonators. MKIDs are capable of detecting single photons with very small energy and micro second time resolutions. With proper readout electronic system it is possible to read arrays of thousands MKIDs using single signal line using frequency domain multiplexing (FDM). This report details the work done developing a laboratory setup for measuring MKIDs and developing code for frequency measurements. All the work was done using readout system based on a Re-configurable Open Archite Computing Hardware (ROACH) FPGA board and The Collaboration for Astronomy Signal Processing and Electronics Research (CASPER) software.
A microwave kinetic inductance detector (MKID) is a superconducting pair-breaking detector used for astronomical observations in the sub-millimeter through visible range. Radiation is detected as a phase and amplitude signal proportional to the frequency shift of the device. In the case of arrays of MKIDs, the read-out is performed using the frequency division multiplexing technique. However, there is currently no commercial system or low-cost standard electronics available for this task. In this work, we take the first steps towards developing a low-cost readout system for MKIDs based on the Red Pitaya board. We have developed a firmware for the efficient generation of probe tones, and show figures of merit characterizing the performance of the readout in a hardware prototype. The design is flexible, letting us to adapt it to new frequencies and amplitudes requirements of the MKID arrays.
Microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) represent a class of low-temperature superconducting detectors employed for observing astronomical phenomena spanning the submillimeter through visible bands. Renowned for their intrinsic frequency-division multiplexing capability at microwave frequencies, MKIDs offer the advantage of eliminating the need for complex cryogenic multiplexing electronics. However, the overall readout architecture remains complex, necessitating sophisticated room-temperature electronics. Optimizing overall performance poses a significant challenge. This article introduces a novel approach to behavioral modeling and simulation for the MKID readout system utilizing Simulink and the RF Blockset library. The models incorporate major nonidealities of electronic components to investigate their impacts on system performance. In addition, the model of the MKID array is included based on measured transmission data, ensuring high simulation accuracy. The simulation tool facilitates the study and high-level design of the MKID readout system before delving into hardware implementation.
We present a novel readout electronics system for large arrays of superconducting electromagnetic resonators, such as kinetic inductance detectors (KIDs), based on a Radio Frequency System on Chip (RFSoC) architecture. Each channel in the readout system is designed for frequency division multiplexing of up to 1024 high quality factor resonances placed on a single microwave transmission line at unique frequencies within a 512 MHz bandwidth. We describe the design of the digital and analog signal processing chains for the implementation of a two-channel 2048-resonator system on the Xilinx ZCU111 RFSoC evaluation board in combination with a custom intermediate frequency (IF) system to convert the RFSoC band to higher frequencies up to 4 GHz. We also detail an associated software interface that provides a range of tools commonly utilized for characterizing KID resonators and for operating them as part of a photometric millimeter-wave imager. We additionally provide noise characterizations of the individual readout components, along with the complete readout system in isolation and in operation to readout KID resonators.
Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) have great potential for large very sensitive detector arrays for use in, for example, sub-mm imaging. Being intrinsically readout in the frequency domain, they are particularly suited for frequency domain multiplexing allowing $\sim$1000s of devices to be readout with one pair of coaxial cables. However, this moves the complexity of the detector from the cryogenics to the warm electronics. We present here the concept and experimental demonstration of the use of Fast Fourier Transform Spectrometer (FFTS) readout, showing no deterioration of the noise performance compared to low noise analog mixing while allowing high multiplexing ratios.