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EPJ Quantum Technology

Modelling detector response for accurate calibration of single-photon detectors under pulsed single-photon illumination

Hristina Georgieva, Edouard Ivanov, Petr Stepanov, Marco López, S. Kück

Published Jul 24, 2026• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Abstract We present an empirical model describing the detection response of single-photon detectors under pulsed illumination from a single-photon source based on a quantum dot. The model does not rely on assumptions about the recovery dynamics, but incorporates measured recovery functions to predict the effective detection efficiency. This model was successfully validated through a calibration of a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector at photon fluxes of up to 19 million photons per second at a wavelength of 929 nm. Calibrations of three silicon single-photon avalanche detectors with different dead times revealed deviations from the model predictions, suggesting an unaccounted influence of the different electronic design on the detector performance. Owing to its flexibility, the proposed model enables accurate estimation of photon fluxes from single-photon emitters and provides a practical tool for evaluating loss budgets of each component and therefore of entire quantum optical systems, thereby improving the overall system performance.

DOI
10.1140/epjqt/s40507-026-00540-9

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Abstract We present an empirical model describing the detection response of single-photon detectors under pulsed illumination from a single-photon source based on a quantum dot. The model does not rely on assumptions about the recovery dynamics, but incorporates measured recovery functions to predict the effective detection efficiency. This model was successfully validated through a calibration of a superconducting nanowire single-photon detector at photon fluxes of up to 19 million photons per second at a wavelength of 929 nm. Calibrations of three silicon single-photon avalanche detectors with different dead times revealed deviations from the model predictions, suggesting an unaccounted influence of the different electronic design on the detector performance. Owing to its flexibility, the proposed model enables accurate estimation of photon fluxes from single-photon emitters and provides a practical tool for evaluating loss budgets of each component and therefore of entire quantum optical systems, thereby improving the overall system performance.
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) are an attractive technology for applications which benefit from high-count rate photon detection such as quantum communication protocols, photon-starved classical communications, metrology of single-emitters, and photonic quantum computing. However, at high-count rates, a significant portion of photons may be incident during recovery intervals following prior detection events. After detection, the device efficiency recovers over nanoseconds to tens of nanoseconds before reaching a steadystate value. Therefore, for a given SNSPD bias current setpoint, a single efficiency and recovery time specification may not be sufficient to characterize the performance of a device at high count rates. Here we present and experimentally validate a model of the recovery time as a function of bias current for any given system efficiency. These results may be used to improve analysis of measurements performed using SNSPDs operating in the high count rate regime.
One of the key properties of single-photon detectors is their recovery time, i.e. the time required for the detector to recover its nominal efficiency. In the case of superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs), which can feature extremely short recovery times in free-running mode, a precise characterization of this recovery time and its time dynamics is essential for many quantum optics or quantum communication experiments. We introduce a fast and simple method to characterize precisely the recovery time of SNSPDs. It provides full information about the recovery of the efficiency in time for a single or several consecutive detections. We also show how the method can be used to gain insight into the behavior of the bias current inside the nanowire after a detection, which allows predicting the behavior of the detector and its efficiency in any practical experiment using these detectors.
One of the key properties of single-photon detectors is their recovery time, i.e., the time required for the detector to recover its nominal efficiency. In the case of superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs), which can feature extremely short recovery times in free-running mode, a precise characterization of this recovery time and its time dynamics is essential for many quantum optics or quantum communication experiments. We introduce a fast and simple method to characterize precisely the recovery time of SNSPDs. It provides full information about the recovery of the efficiency in time for a single or several consecutive detections. We also show how the method can be used to gain insight into the behavior of the bias current inside the nanowire after a detection, which allows predicting the behavior of the detector and its efficiency in any practical experiment using these detectors.
Superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors have emerged as a promising technology for quantum metrology from the mid-infrared to ultraviolet frequencies. Despite recent experimental successes, a predictive model to describe the detection event in these detectors is needed to optimize the detection metrics. Here, we propose a probabilistic criterion for single-photon detection based on single-vortex (flux quanta) crossing the width of the nanowire. Our model makes a connection between the dark counts and photon counts near the detection threshold. The finite-difference calculations demonstrate that a change in the bias current distribution as a result of the photon absorption significantly increases the probability of single-vortex crossing even if the vortex potential barrier has not vanished completely. We estimate the instrument response function and show that the timing uncertainty of this vortex tunneling process corresponds to a fundamental limit in timing jitter of the click event. We demonstrate a trade-space between this intrinsic (quantum) timing jitter, quantum efficiency, and dark count rate in TaN, WSi, and NbN superconducting nanowires at different experimental conditions. Our detection model can also explain the experimental observation of exponential decrease in the quantum efficiency of SNSPDs at lower energies. This leads to a pulse-width dependency in the quantum efficiency, and it can be further used as an experimental test to compare across different detection models.
A new method to study the transient detection efficiency(DE) and pulse amplitude of superconducting nanowire single photon detectors(SNSPD) during the current recovery process is proposed — statistically analyzing the single photon response under photon illumination with a high repetition rate.The transient DE results match well with the DEs deduced from the static current dependence of DE combined with the waveform of a single-photon detection event.This proves that static measurement results can be used to analyze the transient current recovery process after a detection event.The results are relevant for understanding the current recovery process of SNSPDs after a detection event and for determining the counting rate of SNSPDs.
Nanophotonic circuitry and superconducting nanowires have been successfully combined for detecting single photons, propagating in an integrated photonic circuit, with high efficiency and low noise and timing uncertainty. Waveguide-integrated superconducting nanowire single-photon detectors (SNSPDs) can nowadays be engineered to achieve subnanosecond recovery times and can potentially be adopted for applications requiring Gcps count rates. However, particular attention shall be paid to such an extreme count rate regime since artifacts in the detector functionality emerge. In particular, a count-rate dependent detection efficiency has been encountered that can compromise the accuracy of quantum detector tomography experiments. Here, we investigate the response of waveguide-integrated SNSPDs at high photon flux and identify the presence of parasitic currents due to the accumulation of charge in the readout electronics to cause the above-mentioned artifact in the detection efficiency. Our approach allows us to determine the maximum photon count rate at which the detector can be operated without adverse effects. Our findings are particularly important to avoid artifacts when applying SNSPDs for quantum tomography.