The recent introduction of Google’s Willow quantum chip has demonstrated remarkable computational capabilities, solving problems in microseconds that would take classical computers millions of years. As quantum computers advance toward cryptographic relevance, existing encryption algorithms become vulnerable to attacks that could break them within seconds or minutes, rendering current cryptographic protections ineffective. This necessitates the establishment of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards to secure systems in the quantum era. This study evaluates the performance of NIST-standardized PQC algorithms ML-KEM (512, 768, 1024) and ML-DSA (2, 3, 5) on a Raspberry Pi 4 Model B, representing baseline IoT device capabilities. Using the Liboqs library, each algorithm was executed across 1000 iterations in a real-world wireless network environment connected to a router, accounting for practical network conditions such as packet loss, latency, and jitter to assess computational feasibility under resource-constrained conditions. Experimental results demonstrate the practical viability of PQC algorithms in IoT environments. ML-KEM-512 achieves encapsulation in 55.76 μs and decapsulation in 56.15 μs, with key generation in 123.78 μs (median), while ML-DSA-44 completes signature generation in 379.83 μs and verification in 159.38 μs. These findings confirm that both ML-KEM and ML-DSA algorithms offer efficient and rapid performance, making them suitable candidates for securing IoT devices against quantum threats.
The recent introduction of Google’s Willow quantum chip has demonstrated remarkable computational capabilities, solving problems in microseconds that would take classical computers millions of years. As quantum computers advance toward cryptographic relevance, existing encryption algorithms become vulnerable to attacks that could break them within seconds or minutes, rendering current cryptographic protections ineffective. This necessitates the establishment of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) standards to secure systems in the quantum era. This study evaluates the performance of NIST-standardized PQC algorithms ML-KEM (512, 768, 1024) and ML-DSA (2, 3, 5) on a Raspberry Pi 4 Model B, representing baseline IoT device capabilities. Using the Liboqs library, each algorithm was executed across 1000 iterations in a real-world wireless network environment connected to a router, accounting for practical network conditions such as packet loss, latency, and jitter to assess computational feasibility under resource-constrained conditions. Experimental results demonstrate the practical viability of PQC algorithms in IoT environments. ML-KEM-512 achieves encapsulation in 55.76 μs and decapsulation in 56.15 μs, with key generation in 123.78 μs (median), while ML-DSA-44 completes signature generation in 379.83 μs and verification in 159.38 μs. These findings confirm that both ML-KEM and ML-DSA algorithms offer efficient and rapid performance, making them suitable candidates for securing IoT devices against quantum threats.
Quantum computing poses a significant threat to Internet of Things (IoT) communications that rely on classical cryptographic algorithms such as RSA, Diffie–Hellman, and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). These algorithms are vulnerable to Shor’s algorithm, making long-term data security uncertain, particularly for IoT devices with extended operational lifespans. Post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms offer resistance to quantum attacks; however, their deployment on resource-constrained IoT devices remains challenging due to limitations in processing power, memory, and energy consumption. This study benchmarks seven Key Encapsulation Mechanisms (KEMs) ML-KEM, Kyber, NTRU, BIKE, Classic McEliece, FrodoKEM, and sntrup761 across key generation, encapsulation, and decapsulation operations. Experiments were conducted using the liboqs library in a virtualized Linux environment running WSL2 to simulate constrained computing conditions. Results revealed substantial performance differences among the algorithms. ML-KEM-512 achieved the best overall performance, completing all operations in under 14 µs, while Kyber-512 showed similar efficiency. NTRU provided the fastest encapsulation but incurred significantly higher key-generation costs. BIKE, FrodoKEM, and Classic McEliece exhibited execution times unsuitable for real-time IoT applications. Overall, lattice-based schemes, particularly ML-KEM and Kyber, emerged as the most practical PQC solutions for resource-constrained IoT environments. The findings also demonstrate the usefulness of virtualized benchmarking for deployment planning.
The advent of quantum computing threatens the security of classical public-key cryptographic systems, prompting the transition to post-quantum cryptography (PQC). While PQC has been analyzed in theory, its performance in practical wireless communication environments remains underexplored. This paper presents a detailed implementation and performance evaluation of NIST-selected PQC algorithms in user equipment (UE) to UE communications over 5G networks. Using a full 5G emulation stack (Open5GS and UERANSIM) and PQC-enabled TLS 1.3 via BoringSSL and liboqs, we examine key encapsulation mechanisms and digital signature schemes across realistic network conditions. We evaluate performance based on handshake latency, CPU and memory usage, bandwidth, and retransmission rates, under varying cryptographic configurations and client loads. Our findings show that ML-KEM with ML-DSA offers the best efficiency for latency-sensitive applications, while SPHINCS+ and HQC combinations incur higher computational and transmission overheads, making them unsuitable for security-critical but time-sensitive 5G scenarios.
The integration of NIST-standardized lattice-based cryptographic algorithms (ML-KEM and ML-DSA) into TLS 1.3 enables post-quantum secure authentication for Industrial IoT (IIoT) environments. This work implements these algorithms within the X.509 certificate infrastructure and evaluates their performance on resource-constrained IIoT hardware (Raspberry Pi 4). Experimental measurements covering key generation, encapsulation, decapsulation, and signature operations were obtained using a liboqs-enabled TLS 1.3 stack. The results show that PQ TLS 1.3 achieves comparable handshake latency to conventional TLS on IIoT-class gateways, with certificate size identified as the dominant overhead. These findings confirm the practicality of post-quantum authentication in IIoT systems while acknowledging limitations related to the hardware scope and simulated networking. Future work will extend validation to field deployments and additional PQC candidates.
ABSTRACT Smart cities are built on a vast interconnected network of Internet of things (IoT), edge and cloud systems to optimise urban services and enhance the quality of life for the residents. However, this integration of cyber‐physical infrastructure expands the attack surface, making it vulnerable to advanced cyber threats. The most notable emerging threat is quantum computers, which can break the classical cryptographic algorithms, such as RSA and ECC, that form the foundation of cybersecurity. Integrating liboqs execution benchmarks with an analytical network fragmentation model simulated with NS‐3, evaluating NIST‐approved PQC key encapsulation mechanisms, ML‐KEM (Kyber512/768/1024), HQC (128/192/256) and classic McEliece variants, alongside signature schemes ML‐DSA (Dilithium), Falcon and SLH‐DSA (SPHINCS+) within a smart city network. We also extended the benchmarking to include NIST's SP 800‐230 draft and provide preliminary benchmarks of the six new parameter sets. To assess embedded feasibility, all algorithms are additionally executed on the ESP32 P4 microcontroller, measuring timing, energy consumption and memory under resource‐constrained conditions. This dual platform methodology enables cross‐validation of network‐level overhead and hardware‐level performance. Results show consistent behaviour across platforms. ML KEM 512 (NIST Security Level 1) provides the best KEM performance, with key generation at 7.2 µs (NS‐3) and 122.6 ms (ESP32 P4), and similarly efficient encapsulation/decapsulation. ML DSA 44 (NIST Security Level 2) achieves the fastest signatures at 64 µs on NS‐3 and 490.6 ms on ESP32 P4. These findings provide evidence‐based guidelines for deploying postquantum cryptography across smart city IoT–Edge–Cloud infrastructures, emphasising crypto‐agility and hybrid cryptography for smart city networks.
The rapid expansion of Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystems has increased the need for communication mechanisms that can remain secure against emerging computational threats. Conventional asymmetric cryptographic schemes, including RSA and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), are vulnerable to advances in quantum computing due to the ability of Shor's algorithm to undermine their underlying mathematical assumptions. To address these challenges, this paper presents PQ-IoT SecureCom, a quantum-resistant communication framework built using NIST-standardized post-quantum cryptographic primitives. The proposed framework employs ML-KEM (derived from Kyber) for secure key encapsulation and ML-DSA (derived from Dilithium) for digital authentication, combined with AESGCM to ensure data confidentiality and integrity. Additional security mechanisms, including PQC-based device certification, periodic session key updates, and nonce-based timestamp validation, are incorporated to mitigate replay and impersonation attacks. The framework also supports a hybrid operational mode that enables performance comparison between classical and postquantum cryptographic schemes. System behavior is monitored using a real-time dashboard that records cryptographic overhead, communication metrics, and detected security events. Experimental evaluation shows that ML-KEM and ML-DSA significantly enhance security while introducing computational overhead that remains acceptable for contemporary IoT devices. Through automated attack simulations and detailed event logging, PQ-IoT SecureCom demonstrates the practical feasibility of deploying scalable post-quantum security in IoT communication systems.
6G networks will require quantum-secure cryptography deployed across core infrastructure, edge nodes, resource-constrained IoT devices. Although post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms have been standardized by NIST, their practical deployability in bandwidth and latency limited wireless systems remains unclear. This paper presents a practical evaluation of NIST selected PQC schemes, including ML-KEM (Kyber), ML-DSA (Dilithium), and Falcon. Benchmarks conducted with OpenSSL and the OQS provider on heterogeneous platforms show that while computational performance is acceptable, ciphertext and signature size expansion significantly impact handshake reliability and bandwidth efficiency, particularly at the network edge. The results highlight key system-level trade-offs and motivate the need for PQC optimization and deployment-aware design for future quantum-secure 6G networks.