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EPJ Quantum Technology

An arbitrated quantum signature scheme for classical information using entanglement swapping

Jason Lin, Mei-Yen Yen, Chia‐Wei Tsai, Chun‐Wei Yang

Published Mar 19, 2026• 0 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Quantum signature protocols often rely on quantum states to carry signature information directly. However, they need SWAP tests, which require numerous copies to ensure accuracy and security, resulting in high implementation costs. This study proposes an arbitrated quantum signature protocol that incorporates classical information with entanglement swapping. Quantum states are converted into classical information immediately after measurement. The protocol does not rely on SWAP tests, avoids long-term storage of quantum signatures, and employs exclusive-OR operations and hash functions to process signature data. By leveraging a third-party arbitrator, it enables reliable identity verification of the signer and verifier, thereby guaranteeing unforgeability and nonrepudiation.

DOI
10.1140/epjqt/s40507-026-00497-9

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Quantum signature protocols often rely on quantum states to carry signature information directly. However, they need SWAP tests, which require numerous copies to ensure accuracy and security, resulting in high implementation costs. This study proposes an arbitrated quantum signature protocol that incorporates classical information with entanglement swapping. Quantum states are converted into classical information immediately after measurement. The protocol does not rely on SWAP tests, avoids long-term storage of quantum signatures, and employs exclusive-OR operations and hash functions to process signature data. By leveraging a third-party arbitrator, it enables reliable identity verification of the signer and verifier, thereby guaranteeing unforgeability and nonrepudiation.
In this paper an arbitrated quantum signature scheme based on entanglement swapping is proposed. In this scheme a message to be signed is coded with unitary operators. Combining quantum measurement with quantum encryption, the signer can generate the signature for a given message. Combining the entangled states generated by the TTP's Bell measurement with the signature information, the verifier can verify the authentication of a signature through a single quantum state measurement. Compared with previous schemes, our scheme is more efficient and less complex, furthermore, our scheme can ensure the anonymity of the signer.
In recent years, identity-based quantum signature protocols have received much attention due to their unique advantages. Based on Bell states, we propose an efficient identity-based quantum signature scheme. In our scheme, the signer’s private key is generated from their identity information. The signer uses the private key and secret parameters to generate a signature for the verifier. The verifier, who possesses the identity information of the signer, can authenticate the signature. Our proposed scheme ensures signature non-forgeability and non-repudiation. In addition, the protocol does not require the preparation of long-term quantum memory or the performance of quantum swap tests, making it more efficient than previous schemes.
In the most arbitrated quantum signatures (AQSs), the signers and verifiers need to perform the quantum key distribution protocols or some other protocols to share secret keys before signing a signature. In some schemes, the entangle states, which are not easily implemented, have to be prepared and distributed among the partners. Based on single photon and one-way functions, a new AQS scheme without entangled states is proposed. In our scheme, the signer generates a quantum signature on the classical message with his/her private key and the one-way function. The arbitrator communicates with the signer through a classical unencrypted channel. The signer and verifier need not perform the key distribution protocol before signing a message. On the other hand, without entangled states, our scheme can reduce the complexity of implementation. Then, our scheme is more efficient than the similar schemes. At the same time, our scheme is secure against forgery attack and disavowal attack.
An arbitrated quantum signature scheme based on entanglement swapping is proposed in this paper. On the foundation of Bell states, the message to be signed is coded with a unitary sequence, and consequently the unitary sequence is used to calibrate the Bell states between the signer and the arbitrator, finally the signature is generated through quantum cryptography. Using the correlation states generated through entanglement swapping on the arbitrators side, the receiver can verify the signature through Bell measurement on his own side. In this scheme, anyone except the authentic signer cannot forge a legal signature and the true receiver cannot deny his recipient because the security of underling quantum cryptography and the participantsprivacy are effectively protected in this scheme.
In some schemes, quantum blind signatures require the use of difficult-to-prepare multiparticle entangled states. By considering the communication overhead, quantum operation complexity, verification efficiency and other relevant factors in practical situations, this article proposes a non-entangled quantum blind signature scheme based on dense encoding. The information owner utilizes dense encoding and hash functions to blind the information while reducing the use of quantum resources. After receiving particles, the signer encrypts the message using a one-way function and performs a Hadamard gate operation on the selected single photon to generate the signature. Then the verifier performs a Hadamard gate inverse operation on the signature and combines it with the encoding rules to restore the message and complete the verification. Compared with some typical quantum blind signature protocols, this protocol has strong blindness in privacy protection, and higher flexibility in scalability and application. The signer can adjust the signature operation according to the actual situation, which greatly simplifies the complexity of the signature. By simultaneously utilizing the secondary distribution and rearrangement of non-entangled quantum states, a non-entangled quantum state representation of three bits of classical information is achieved, reducing the use of a large amount of quantum resources and lowering implementation costs. This improves both signature verification efficiency and communication efficiency while, at the same time, this scheme meets the requirements of unforgeability, non-repudiation, and prevention of information leakage.