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Nanophotonics

Wafer‐scale integration of photonic integrated circuits and atomic vapor cells

Arieh Grosman, Roy Zektzer, Noa Mazurski, Liron Stern, Uriel Levy

Published Dec 1, 2025• 7 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Atom-based technologies have played a central role in both fundamental research and application-driven developments. For example, devices such as atomic clocks and magnetometers are essential for precision time-keeping, navigation, and sensing. However, many of these demonstrations remain confined to laboratory settings due to their reliance on bulky equipment and centimeter-scale atomic vapor cells. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to miniaturize these vapor cells to enable field-deployable systems. Yet, integrating these cells with the necessary photonic components remains a complex and non-scalable process. To address this challenge, we have introduced the atomic-cladded waveguide (ACWG) architecture, which enables the integration of atomic and photonic functions on the same chip. While the ACWG concept provides a significant step forward toward integration, there is still a significant gap related to wafer scale manufacturability. In particular, previous demonstrations of atomic-photonic integration have relied on manual assembly of vapor cells onto single chips, restricting miniaturization, manufacturability, and thermal robustness. To revolutionize manufacturability of these devices, we hereby demonstrate our new generation of ACWG devices that overcomes these constraints. The approach is based on wafer bonding of a silicon wafer - consisting of multiple photonic chips to a glass wafer with pre-etched atomic chambers. This wafer-scale process yields multiple miniaturized integrated photonic-atomic chips in a single batch. The bonded devices operate reliably at elevated temperatures over an extended period of time, allowing higher atomic densities to be used. The fabrication method consists of well-defined, repeatable steps, paving the way for scalable production of mature integrated photonic-atomic systems for next-generation sensing, metrology, and quantum technologies, inspired by commercial complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor-based processes.

DOI
10.1515/nanoph-2025-0500

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Atom-based technologies have played a central role in both fundamental research and application-driven developments. For example, devices such as atomic clocks and magnetometers are essential for precision time-keeping, navigation, and sensing. However, many of these demonstrations remain confined to laboratory settings due to their reliance on bulky equipment and centimeter-scale atomic vapor cells. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to miniaturize these vapor cells to enable field-deployable systems. Yet, integrating these cells with the necessary photonic components remains a complex and non-scalable process. To address this challenge, we have introduced the atomic-cladded waveguide (ACWG) architecture, which enables the integration of atomic and photonic functions on the same chip. While the ACWG concept provides a significant step forward toward integration, there is still a significant gap related to wafer scale manufacturability. In particular, previous demonstrations of atomic-photonic integration have relied on manual assembly of vapor cells onto single chips, restricting miniaturization, manufacturability, and thermal robustness. To revolutionize manufacturability of these devices, we hereby demonstrate our new generation of ACWG devices that overcomes these constraints. The approach is based on wafer bonding of a silicon wafer - consisting of multiple photonic chips to a glass wafer with pre-etched atomic chambers. This wafer-scale process yields multiple miniaturized integrated photonic-atomic chips in a single batch. The bonded devices operate reliably at elevated temperatures over an extended period of time, allowing higher atomic densities to be used. The fabrication method consists of well-defined, repeatable steps, paving the way for scalable production of mature integrated photonic-atomic systems for next-generation sensing, metrology, and quantum technologies, inspired by commercial complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor-based processes.
Integrating alkali atomic vapors with nanophotonic devices offers a scalable route to quantum technologies that leverage strong atom–photon interactions. While there have been many approaches to such integration, the general reliance on traditional glass vapor cells, distilled alkali metals, and epoxy sealing limits reproducibility and scalability. Moreover, mitigating adverse Rb-photonics interactions is essential, particularly as devices become more compact and the alkali source lies in close proximity to the photonic elements. Here, we demonstrate the successful operation of compact and fully integrated devices that combine silicon nitride photonic integrated circuits (PICs) with microfabricated borosilicate vapor cells and pill-type rubidium (Rb) dispensers through hermetic seals via anodic bonding. We show how successful operation hinges on optically activating the dispenser in a low-power pulsed mode, releasing controlled amounts of Rb vapor on demand while mitigating photonic degradation. Simultaneously, a counter-propagating desorption laser completely suppresses Rb-induced losses and enables waveguide-based atomic vapor spectroscopy. Using this approach, we demonstrate repeatable control of vapor density by tuning activation pulse length, duty cycle, and device temperature. These results establish a compact, manufacturable, and scalable vapor–PIC device, and set the stage for future demonstrations in cavity quantum electrodynamics, quantum nonlinear optics, and chip-scale atomic sensors.
Integrating alkali atomic vapors with nanophotonic devices offers a scalable route to quantum technologies that leverage strong atom-photon interactions. While there have been many approaches to such integration, the general reliance on traditional glass vapor cells, distilled alkali metals, and epoxy sealing limits reproducibility and scalability. Moreover, mitigating adverse Rb-photonics interactions is essential, particularly as devices become more compact and the alkali source lies in close proximity to the photonic elements. Here, we demonstrate the successful operation of compact and fully integrated devices that combine silicon nitride photonic integrated circuits (PICs) with microfabricated borosilicate vapor cells and pill-type rubidium (Rb) dispensers through hermetic seals via anodic bonding. We show how successful operation hinges on optically activating the dispenser in a low-power pulsed mode, releasing controlled amounts of Rb vapor on demand while mitigating photonic degradation. Simultaneously, a counter-propagating desorption laser completely suppresses Rb-induced losses and enables waveguide-based atomic vapor spectroscopy. Using this approach, we demonstrate repeatable control of vapor density by tuning activation pulse length, duty cycle, and device temperature. These results establish a compact, manufacturable, and scalable vapor-PIC device, and set the stage for future demonstrations in cavity quantum electrodynamics, quantum nonlinear optics, and chip-scale atomic sensors.
The most appealing features of chip-scale quantum sensors are their capability to maintain extreme sensitivity while enabling large-scale batch manufacturing. This necessitates high-level integration and wafer-level fabrication of atomic vapor cells. In this paper, we describe a micromachining paradigm for wafer-level atomic vapor cells functionalized by CMOS-compatible non-magnetic heaters and temperature sensors and demonstrate several innovative applications. Leveraging standard micro-nanofabrication technology, the integrated vapor cells achieved an ultra-long optical access of 5 mm, nearly four time that of previously microfabricated vapor cells. The feasibility of the integrated atomic vapor cells fabrication process was verified by a consecutive 30-day aging test in a harsh environment (operating temperature of 473 K and vacuum of approximately 1 Pa). Benefiting from the ultra-long optical path, we observed several typical quantum effects, including the saturation absorption and spin fluctuations, a regime previously inaccessible with conventional micromachined vapor cells. Finally, a zero-field quantum magnetometry with an ultra-high magnetic sensitivity of 12 fT/Hz1/2 was also demonstrated. Our achievements broaden the potential applications of microfabricated atomic vapor cells and pave the way for scalable manufacturing of ultrasensitive, chip-scale quantum sensors.
Atomic clocks represent the most advanced instruments for providing time-frequency standards, with increasing demand for designs that offer high frequency stability while minimizing size. Central to an atomic clock’s function is the atomic vapor cell, which serves as the quantum reference. Compared to traditional cells, wafer-level micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) vapor cells enable cost-effective, scalable production and facilitate integration with silicon-based chips. In this work, we present a wafer-level MEMS vapor cell featuring an innovative silicon-glass-silicon transverse optical path structure. A single wafer is used to fabricate 24 identical atomic vapor cells, each with precise dimensions of 14 mm×14 mm×4.3 mm, ensuring scalability. We demonstrate an optical frequency standard that combines modulation transfer spectroscopy (MTS) with a MEMS vapor cell, featuring a compact design with excellent performance. This frequency standard achieves stability over averaging times of 1–400 s, with short-term stability of 2.6×10 −13 at 1 s and 5.1×10 −14 at 200 s. The laser linewidth is only 3.9 kHz, marking a substantial improvement over existing thermal standards, and opening potential applications in navigation, radar, and precision measurement. This work provides a crucial step toward the development of chip-scale optical clocks.
Laser-cooled atoms are a key quantum medium for atomic clocks, precision metrology, and atom interferometers, and they hold strong potential to advance quantum technologies for position, navigation, and timing. Realizing this potential requires moving cold-atom systems beyond laboratory environments. Integrated photonic chips provide a path forward by improving reliability and reducing size, weight, and power consumption, enabling portable and compact quantum sensors for real-world applications. This review surveys recent progress in laser-cooled atomic platforms, with a focus on the key components that enable on-chip integration of cold-atom systems. We discuss on-chip laser stabilization and linewidth-narrowing techniques, enhanced photon–atom coupling at the chip scale, miniaturized high-vacuum chambers, and the integration of on-chip magnetic coils for cold-atom sensing. Together, these developments are critical to the deployment of chip-scale cold-atom devices in both fundamental atomic physics and practical sensing applications. We conclude with an outlook on next-generation integrated cold-atom platforms and their potential impact on quantum technologies.