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Essentials of Photonics

Alan J. Rogers

Published Dec 5, 2008• 4 citations
OpenAlex

Abstract

Photons and ElectronsHistorical SketchThe Wave Nature of LightPolarizationThe Electromagnetic SpectrumEmission and Absorption ProcessesPhoton Statistics The Behaviour of Electrons LasersSummaryWave Properties of LightThe Electromagnetic SpectrumWave RepresentationElectromagnetic WavesReflection and RefractionTotal Internal ReflectionInterference of LightLight WaveguidingInterferometersDiffractionGaussian Beams and Stable Optical ResonatorsPolarization OpticsThe Polarization EllipseCrystal OpticsRetarding WaveplatesA Variable Waveplate: The Soleil-Babinet Compensator Polarizing PrismsLinear BirefringenceCircular BirefringenceElliptical BirefringencePractical Polarization EffectsPolarization AnalysisThe Form of the Jones MatricesLight and Matter Emission, Propagation, and Absorption ProcessesClassical Theory of Light Propagation in Uniform Dielectric Media Optical Dispersion Emission and Absorption of LightOptical Coherence and CorrelationIntroductionMeasure of Coherence Wiener-Khinchin TheoremDual-Beam Interference Practical Examples Some Essential Physics of Radiation and Solids RadiationElectrons in Solids Optical Sources, Modulators, and DetectorsOptical SourcesOptical ModulatorsPhotodetectorsOptical WaveguidesThe Planar Waveguide Integrated OpticsCylindrical WaveguidesOptical FibresOptical Fibres for CommunicationsPolarization-Holding Waveguides Photonic Crystal FibresNonlinear OpticsNonlinear Optics and Optical FibresThe Formalism of Nonlinear OpticsSecond-Harmonic Generation and Phase MatchingOptical MixingIntensity-Dependent Refractive IndexFour-Photon Mixing (FPM)Parametric and Inelastic ProcessesSolitonsPhotosensitivityNon-Linear Effects in Photonic Crystal Fibres (PCF)Photonics in ActionAntireflective Coatings Optical-Fibre Current MeasurementThe Integrated Optical Spectrum AnalyserThe Audio Compact Disc (CD) The Optical-Fibre GyroscopeHolographyOptical-Time-Domain Reflectometry (OTDR) and Its Use in Distributed Optical-Fibre Raman Temperature Sensing (DTS)Measurement of Very Short Optical Pulses: The AutocorrelatorTopics in Optical-Fibre CommunicationsRegimes-Correlation LengthEpilogue And What of the Future?AppendicesAppendix I: Maxwell's EquationsAppendix II: The Fourier Inversion TheoremAppendix III: Symmetry of the Permittivity TensorAppendix IV: The Polarization EllipseAppendix V: Radiation from an Oscillating DipoleAppendix VI: The d-FunctionAppendix VII: The Fermi-Dirac Function Appendix VIII: Second Harmonic Generation Appendix IX: The Sampling TheoremAppendix X: The Semiconductor EquationAppendix XI: The Formal Analysis of Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD)ReferencesEach chapter includes an introduction, conclusion, problems, references, and suggestions for further reading.

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Photons and ElectronsHistorical SketchThe Wave Nature of LightPolarizationThe Electromagnetic SpectrumEmission and Absorption ProcessesPhoton Statistics The Behaviour of Electrons LasersSummaryWave Properties of LightThe Electromagnetic SpectrumWave RepresentationElectromagnetic WavesReflection and RefractionTotal Internal ReflectionInterference of LightLight WaveguidingInterferometersDiffractionGaussian Beams and Stable Optical ResonatorsPolarization OpticsThe Polarization EllipseCrystal OpticsRetarding WaveplatesA Variable Waveplate: The Soleil-Babinet Compensator Polarizing PrismsLinear BirefringenceCircular BirefringenceElliptical BirefringencePractical Polarization EffectsPolarization AnalysisThe Form of the Jones MatricesLight and Matter Emission, Propagation, and Absorption ProcessesClassical Theory of Light Propagation in Uniform Dielectric Media Optical Dispersion Emission and Absorption of LightOptical Coherence and CorrelationIntroductionMeasure of Coherence Wiener-Khinchin TheoremDual-Beam Interference Practical Examples Some Essential Physics of Radiation and Solids RadiationElectrons in Solids Optical Sources, Modulators, and DetectorsOptical SourcesOptical ModulatorsPhotodetectorsOptical WaveguidesThe Planar Waveguide Integrated OpticsCylindrical WaveguidesOptical FibresOptical Fibres for CommunicationsPolarization-Holding Waveguides Photonic Crystal FibresNonlinear OpticsNonlinear Optics and Optical FibresThe Formalism of Nonlinear OpticsSecond-Harmonic Generation and Phase MatchingOptical MixingIntensity-Dependent Refractive IndexFour-Photon Mixing (FPM)Parametric and Inelastic ProcessesSolitonsPhotosensitivityNon-Linear Effects in Photonic Crystal Fibres (PCF)Photonics in ActionAntireflective Coatings Optical-Fibre Current MeasurementThe Integrated Optical Spectrum AnalyserThe Audio Compact Disc (CD) The Optical-Fibre GyroscopeHolographyOptical-Time-Domain Reflectometry (OTDR) and Its Use in Distributed Optical-Fibre Raman Temperature Sensing (DTS)Measurement of Very Short Optical Pulses: The AutocorrelatorTopics in Optical-Fibre CommunicationsRegimes-Correlation LengthEpilogue And What of the Future?AppendicesAppendix I: Maxwell's EquationsAppendix II: The Fourier Inversion TheoremAppendix III: Symmetry of the Permittivity TensorAppendix IV: The Polarization EllipseAppendix V: Radiation from an Oscillating DipoleAppendix VI: The d-FunctionAppendix VII: The Fermi-Dirac Function Appendix VIII: Second Harmonic Generation Appendix IX: The Sampling TheoremAppendix X: The Semiconductor EquationAppendix XI: The Formal Analysis of Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD)ReferencesEach chapter includes an introduction, conclusion, problems, references, and suggestions for further reading.
Partial table of contents: PART I: GENERAL CONCEPTS AND METHODS OF NONLINEAR OPTICS. Electromagnetic Fields. Classical Description. The Quantized Free Radiation Field. Interaction Between Radiation and Matter. Semiclassical Description of Nonlinear Optics. Statistical and Coherence Properties of the Radiation Field and Their Measurement. Nonstationary Processes. PART II: EFFECTS AND PROCESSES OF NONLINEAR OPTICS. Nonlinear One--photon Processes in Lasers. Nonlinearities in Transient One--photon Processes. Nonlinearities and Qunatum Phenomena in Transient One--photon Processes. Multiphoton Absorption and Emission. Generation of Harmonics and Sum and Difference Frequencies. Parametric Amplification and Oscillation. Stimulated Raman Scattering. Optical Bistability. APPENDIX A: Compilation of Quantum--Theoretical Definitions and Relations. General References. Index.
Electromagnetic Wave Theory and Measurement of Light Electromagnetic Wave Theory of Light Classical Superposition Measurement of Light Intensity of Light: Expectation and Fluctuation Measurement of Intensity: Ensemble Average and Time Average Coherence Property of Light-The State of the Radiation Coherence Property of Light Temporal Coherence Spatial Coherence Diffraction and Propagation Diffraction Field Propagation Optical Imaging A Classic Imaging System Fourier Transform via a Lens First-Order Coherence of Light First-Order Temporal Coherence First-Order Spatial Coherence Second-Order Coherence of Light Second-Order Coherence of Coherent Light Second-Order Correlation of Chaotic-Thermal Radiation and the HBT Interferometer The Physical Cause of the HBT Phenomenon Near-Field Second-Order Spatial Coherence of Thermal Light Nth-Order Coherence of Light Nth-Order Near-Field Spatial Coherence of Thermal Light Homodyne Detection and Heterodyne Detection of Light Optical Homodyne and Heterodyne Detection Balanced Homodyne and Heterodyne Detection Balanced Homodyne Detection of Independent and Coupled Thermal Fields Quantum Theory of Light: Field Quantization and Measurement The Experimental Foundation-Part I: Blackbody Radiation The Experimental Foundation-Part II: Photoelectric Effect The Light Quantum and the Field Quantization Photon Number State of Radiation Field Coherent State of Radiation Field Density Operator and Density Matrix Composite System and Two-Photon State of Radiation Field A Simple Model of Incoherent and Coherent Radiation Source Pure State and Mixed State Product State, Entangled State, and Mixed State of Photon Pairs Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory Measurement of Light: Photon Counting Measurement of Light: Joint Detection of Photons Field Propagation in Space-Time Quantum Theory of Optical Coherence Quantum Degree of First-Order Coherence Photon and Effective Wavefunction Measurement of the First-Order Coherence or Correlation Quantum Degree of Second-Order Coherence Two-Photon Interference vs. Statistical Correlation of Intensity Fluctuations Second-Order Spatial Correlation of Thermal Light Photon Counting and Measurement of G(2) Quantum Entanglement EPR Experiment and EPR State Product State, Entangled State, and Classically Correlated State Entangled States in Spin Variables Entangled Biphoton State EPR Correlation of Entangled Biphoton System Subsystem in an Entangled Two-Photon State Biphoton in Dispersive Media Quantum Imaging Biphoton Imaging Ghost Imaging Ghost Imaging and Uncertainty Relation Thermal Light Ghost Imaging Classical Simulation of Ghost Imaging Turbulence-Free Ghost Imaging Two-Photon Interferometry I: Biphoton Interference Is Two-Photon Interference the Interference of Two Photons? Two-Photon Interference with Orthogonal Polarization Franson Interferometer Two-Photon Ghost Interference Delayed Choice Quantum Eraser Two-Photon Interferometry II: Quantum Interference of Chaotic Light Two-Photon Young's Interference Two-Photon Anticorrelation with Incoherent Chaotic Light Two-Photon Interference with Incoherent Orthogonal Polarized Chaotic Light Bell's Theorem and Bell's Inequality Measurement Hidden Variable Theory and Quantum Calculation for the Measurement of Spin 1/2 Bohm State Bell's Theorem and Bell's Inequality Bell States Bell State Preparation
FOREWORD by N. Bloembergen NONLINEAR OPTICS Channeling of atoms in a standing laser light wave by V.I. Balykin et al. Optical nonlinearities and the Kerr effect in phaseonium by U. Rathe et al. Spectroscopic studies in the far ultraviolet (80-200nm) using nonlinear tunable sources by B.P. Stoicheff CARS in plasma physics by M. Lefebvre et al. Velocity distribution of electrons for tunnel ionization by a light field with polar asymmetry by N.B. Baranova and B. Ya Zel'dovich NONLINEAR OPTICS IN CONDENSED MEDIA Hot carriers in semiconductors studied via picosecond optical nonlinearities in the infrared by T. Elsasser and W. Kaiser Non-local time-resolved spectroscopy-tracking of polariton pulses in crystals by Ch Flytzanis et al. Self trapping of optical beams in photorefractive media by M. Segev et al. Solitons in quantum nonlinear optics by R.Y. Chiao et al. Femtosecond dynamics of third-order nonlinearities in polythiophenes by A Cybo-Ottone et al. NEW DEVICES AND TECHNOLOGY Nonlinear generation of sub-psec pulses of THz electromagnetic radiation by optoelectronics-applications to time-domain spectroscopy by D. Grischkowsky Novel nonlinear optical techniques for studying chiral molecules of biological importance by N.I. Koroteev Coupled nonlinear cavities: new avenues to ultrashort pulses by F. Mitschke et al. Transverse rotating waves in nonlinear optical systems with spatial and temporal delay by N.G. Iroshnikov and M.A. Vorontsov The effect of intraspectral harmonics correlation of broad-band fields on the excitation of quantum resonance systems by A.M. Bonch-Bruevich and S.B. Przhibelskii Injection-locked femtosecond parametric oscillators in LBO crystals by V.M. Gordienko et al. INDEX
Light Propagation: From Atomic to Nuclear Quantim Optics (J Evers et al.) Relativistic High-Order Harmonic Generation (M C Kohler & K Z Hatsagortsyan) Entangled Light and Matter Waves via Non-linear Interactions (M Macovei et al.) Irreversible Photon Transfer in an Ensemble of Λ-Type Atoms and Photon Diode (G Nikoghosyan & M Fleischhauer) Dissipative Chaos in Quantum Distributions (T V Gevorgyan et al.) Frequency Chirped Laser Pulses in Atomic Physics: Coherent Control of Inner and Translational Quantum States (G P Djotyan et al.) Strongly Correlated Quantum Dynamics of Multimode Light Coupled to a Two-Level Atom in a Cavity (T Kumar et al.) Feedback-Driven Adiabatic Quantum Dynamics (A E Allahverdyan & G Mahler) Landau-Zener Transition in Nonlinear Quantum System (A M Ishkhanyan) Photonic and Electronic Phenomena in Structured Media: Multiple Interactions in Multilayered Structures of Nonlinear Materials (D A Antonosyan & G Yu Kryuchkyan) Integrated Photonic Device Structures with Nano-Scale Features: For Sensitive Applications (R M De La Rue) One-, Two-Electronic and Excitonic States in a Quantum Dots with Nontrivial Geometries: Adiabatic Description (K G Dvoyan et al.) Plannar Plasmonic Structures and Non-linear Metal-Dielectric Subwavelength Waveguides (A R Davoyan et al.) Computer Algebra Study of Structural and Symmetry Properties of Discrete Dynamical Systems (V V Kornyak) Exotic Few-Body Bound States in a Lattice (D Petrosyan & M Valiente) Slow Light and Phase Transition in the Array of Atomic Polaritons (I O Barinov et al.) Nonlinear Optical Effects and Spectroscopy: Formation of Narrow Optical Resonances Using Submicron-Thin Atomic Vapor Layers (D Sarkisyan & A Papoyan) Modelling Magneto-Optical Resonances in Atomic Rubidium at D1 Excitation in Extremely Thin Cells While Maintaining a Self-Consistent Set of Theoretical Parameters (L Kalvans et al.) Laser Isotope Separation in Atomic Vapour. Photo-Chemical Method vs Photo-Ionization One (P A Bokhan et al.) Two-Dimensional Confined Terahertz Wave Propagation in Gap Plasmon Waveguide Formed by Two Cyclindrical Surfaces (Yu H Avetisyan et al.) Broadband Similariton: Features and Applications (A Zeytunyan et al.).
Optical frequency references are devices providing well-defined and stable optical frequency responses to incoming radiation for applications such as high-precision spectroscopy and optical fibre communications. To stabilise the emission frequency of lasers, which drifts with time mostly because of fluctuations in temperature and mechanical vibrations, atomic and molecular optical transitions can be used since they show precise and well-defined frequency responses to incoming radiation. However from a practical standpoint conventional gas cell devices cannot be easily integrated into existing optical systems because of their bulky dimensions. To replace conventional absorption cells, photonic crystal fibres filled with gas-phase material are promising devices owing to their robustness, reliability, and portable characteristics. In addition they can be directly embedded into existing optical systems and they perform well in harsh environments. In this experimental study, optical gas-phase frequency references based on photonic crystal technology are realised. The gas-sensing properties of different photonic crystal fibre samples are studied and the long-term stability and reliability of fibre gas cells are demonstrated. In addition an analytical model predicting the gas-filling time in photonic crystal fibres (PCF) is developed and can be applied to any type of fibre, fibre geometry, or length. Then fibre gas cells filled with acetylene gas, a recognised frequency reference gas-phase material, have been prepared to conduct fundamental research on slow & fast light generation in optical fibres to verify the possibilities of slow light in enhancing light-matter interaction. The group velocity of light is controlled by modifying the material and structural dispersive properties of the PCF absorption cells through stimulated Brillouin scattering and cavity ring resonators, respectively. We could demonstrate that material slow light has no impact on the molecular absorption effect whereas structural slow light has an impact on the absorption efficiency scaling linearly with the group index. Such radically different responses to slow light suggest that group velocity is not the universal physical quantity scaling light-matter interaction, and that the optical absorption of molecules is more closely related to the velocity of the electromagnetic energy. Finally the impact of slow light on the molecular absorption efficiency is also evaluated in dispersion-engineered photonic crystal waveguides. We demonstrate that in planar photonic crystal waveguides the field enhancement and its evanescent fraction have more impact on the absorption efficiency than the reduction of the group velocity of light.
Nonlinear optical phenomena associated with high-order soliton breakup in photonic crystal fibres and squeezed state generation in three dimensional photonic crystal microcavities are investigated. In both cases, the properties of periodically patterned, high-index contrast dielectric structures are engineered to control the dispersion and local field enhancements of the electromagnetic field. Ultra-short pulse propagation in a polarization-maintaining microstructured fibre (with 1 um core diameter and 1.1 m length) is investigated experimentally and theoretically. For an 80 MHz train of 130 fs pulses with average propagating powers in the fibre up to 13.8 mW, the output spectra consist of multiple discrete solitons that shift continuously to lower energies as they propagate in the lowest transverse mode of the fibre. The number of solitons and the amount that they shift both increase with the launched power. All of the data is quantitatively consistent with solutions of the nonlinear Schrodinger equation, but only when the Raman nonlinearity is treated without approximation, and self-steepening is included. The feasibility of using a parametric down-conversion process to generate squeezed electromagnetic states in 3D photonic crystal microcavity structures is investigated for the first time. The spectrum of the squeezed light is theoretically calculated by using an open cavity quantum mechanical formalism. The cavity communicates with two main channels, which model vertical radiation losses and coupling into a single-mode waveguide respectively. The amount of squeezing is determined by the correlation functions relating the field quadratures of light coupled into the waveguide. All of the relevant model parameters are realistically estimated using 3D finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) simulations. Squeezing up to ~20% below the shot noise level is predicted for reasonable optical excitation levels. To preserve the squeezed nature of the light generated in the microcavity, a unidirectional coupling geometry from the microcavity to a ridge waveguide in a slab photonic crystal structure is studied. The structure was successfully fabricated in a silicon membrane, and experimental measurements of the efficiency for the signal coupled out of the structure are in good agreement with the result of FDTD simulations. The coupling efficiency of the cavity mode to the output channel is ~60%.