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Computers & Electrical Engineering

Quantum Blockchain for Internet of Things: A systematic review, proposed solutions and challenges

Diksha Chawla, Saru Kumari, Rajkumar Singh Rathore, Pawan Singh Mehra, Ashok Kumar Das, Neeraj Kumar

Published Jun 25, 2025• 7 citations
Publisher
DOI
10.1016/j.compeleceng.2025.110524

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The rapid expansion and inherent resource limitations of Internet of Things (IoT) devices necessitate robust, future-proof security solutions, particularly against sophisticated data integrity threats and the imminent risk of quantum computing attacks. This paper provides a systematic literature review (SLR) of the architectural integration of blockchain with quantum technologies (quantum key distribution (QKD) and post-quantum cryptography (PQC)) for a two-stage trust model in IoT communication. This review summarizes existing methods and answers three key research questions. The results show that permissioned blockchains are primarily used for trust management to ensure the non-repudiation and immutability of data. Notably, there is a clear dividing line in the application of quantum solutions: QKD is particularly suitable for securing high-capacity backbone communications (server gateways), whereas PQC (especially lattice-based algorithms such as Kyber and Dilithium) is the mainstream resource-efficient solution for IoT terminals. However, this integration also has significant drawbacks, such as high latency due to blockchain consensus mechanisms and increased memory and CPU requirements from PQC implementations. The main challenge is the lack of standardized protocols for integrating QKD key management with smart contract functionality. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of current architectures, assesses their performance trade-offs, and outlines a clear research agenda aimed at developing standardized hybrid protocols for future trusted IoT systems and optimizing resource-efficient, quantum-resistant consensus mechanisms.
With billions of resource-constrained devices exchanging sensitive data over heterogeneous networks, the fast-growing expansion of the Internet of Things (IoT) has heightened the concerns of security. In this regard, classical blockchain, despite its promise, has two main disadvantages: it cannot scale properly under massive IoT traffic and it can be vulnerable to quantum adversaries. This work attempts to fill these gaps through an analytical and empirical review of thirty recent models using blockchain, post-quantum cryptography, and quantum-native approaches. Conducted under the PRISMA guidelines, this review systematically examines how its models perform with respect to common security metrics: delay, complexity, throughput, security efficiency, and packet delivery ratio. The findings of the study suggest that regular adaptive blockchains with dynamic block size optimization and lightweight hashing consistently achieve high throughput (>900 Tx/sec) and packet delivery ratios (>95%) in IoT environments making them the most feasible solution in near term. In contrast, post-quantum models, using hybrid encryption and an optimized SIKE provide significantly enhanced resilience (security efficiency in the range of 92% to 96%) while introducing computational overhead unsuited for low-power devices. The frameworks of quantum blockchain, utilizing QKD-based authentication and heap-driven key distribution, provide unsurpassed security efficiency (>95%) but stay largely constrained experimentally at this stage. The synthesis from the empirical study suggests a multi-layered approach, consisting of immediate implementations of lightweight adaptive models, mid-term enhancements through post-quantum cryptography optimization, and a long-term aim of deployment of full quantum blockchain architecture. Such insights would prove pivotal in IoT sectors with real-time requirements like health, smart grids, and industrial automation, where balancing scalability, efficiency, and quantum resilience is of utmost importance. Hence, the work provides an avenue for foundational mapping of advancement in quantum-secure IoT ecosystems.