Current improvements in quantum computing present a substantial challenge to classical cryptographic systems, which typically rely on problems that can be solved in polynomial time using quantum algorithms. Consequently, post-quantum cryptography (PQC) has emerged as a promising solution to emerging quantum-based cryptographic challenges. The greatest threat is public-key cryptosystems, which are primarily responsible for key exchanges. In PQC, key encapsulation mechanisms (KEMs) are crucial for securing key exchange protocols, particularly in Internet communication, virtual private networks (VPNs), and secure messaging applications. CRYSTALS-Kyber and NTRU are two well-known PQC KEMs offering robust security in the quantum world. However, even when quantum computers are functional, they are not easily accessible. IoT devices will not be able to utilize them directly, so there will still be a requirement to protect IoT devices from quantum attacks. Concerns such as limited computational power, energy efficiency, and memory constraints in devices such as those used in IoTs, embedded systems, and smart cards limit the use of these techniques in constrained environments. These concerns always arise there. To address this issue, this study conducts a broad comparative analysis of Kyber and NTRU, with special focus on their security, performance, and implementation efficiency in such environments (IOT/constrained environments). In addition, a case study was conducted by applying KEMs to a low-power embedded device to analyze their performance in real-world scenarios. These results offer an important comparison for cyber security engineers and cryptographers who are involved in integrating post-quantum cryptography into resource-constrained devices.
Current improvements in quantum computing present a substantial challenge to classical cryptographic systems, which typically rely on problems that can be solved in polynomial time using quantum algorithms. Consequently, post-quantum cryptography (PQC) has emerged as a promising solution to emerging quantum-based cryptographic challenges. The greatest threat is public-key cryptosystems, which are primarily responsible for key exchanges. In PQC, key encapsulation mechanisms (KEMs) are crucial for securing key exchange protocols, particularly in Internet communication, virtual private networks (VPNs), and secure messaging applications. CRYSTALS-Kyber and NTRU are two well-known PQC KEMs offering robust security in the quantum world. However, even when quantum computers are functional, they are not easily accessible. IoT devices will not be able to utilize them directly, so there will still be a requirement to protect IoT devices from quantum attacks. Concerns such as limited computational power, energy efficiency, and memory constraints in devices such as those used in IoTs, embedded systems, and smart cards limit the use of these techniques in constrained environments. These concerns always arise there. To address this issue, this study conducts a broad comparative analysis of Kyber and NTRU, with special focus on their security, performance, and implementation efficiency in such environments (IOT/constrained environments). In addition, a case study was conducted by applying KEMs to a low-power embedded device to analyze their performance in real-world scenarios. These results offer an important comparison for cyber security engineers and cryptographers who are involved in integrating post-quantum cryptography into resource-constrained devices.
The rapid advancement of quantum computing poses significant threats to classical cryptographic methods, such as Rivest–Shamir–Adleman (RSA) and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), which currently secure Internet of Things (IoT) and cloud communications. Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC), particularly lattice-based schemes, has emerged as a promising alternative. CRYSTALS-Kyber, standardized by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) as ML-KEM, has shown efficiency and practicality for constrained IoT devices. Most existing research has focused on PQC within the Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocol. Consequently, a critical gap exists in understanding PQC’s performance in lightweight IoT protocols. These are Message Queuing Telemetry Transport (MQTT) and Constrained Application Protocol (CoAP), particularly under adverse network conditions. To address this gap, this paper provides a systematic review of the literature on the network resilience and performance of CRYSTALS-Kyber when integrated into these protocols operating over lossy and high-latency networks. Additional challenges include non-standardized integration, resource limitations, and side-channel vulnerabilities. This review provides a structured synthesis of current knowledge, highlights unresolved trade-offs between security and efficiency, and outlines future research directions, including protocol-level optimization, lightweight signature schemes, and resilience testing of PQC-secured IoT protocols under realistic conditions.
The rapid advancement of quantum technology brings significant trouble to the public key encryption standards used presently. Traditional cryptographic algorithms rely on the complexity of a specific number of theoretical problems, but the computational capabilities of large-scale quantum computers would swiftly compromise these specific mathematics-based cryptographic algorithms. These quantum technology-based computers consist of millions of qubits which can enable them to damage nearly all modern public-key cryptographic systems. This security issue is particularly concerning Internet of Things (IoT) devices, which typically have limited resources and are thus more susceptible to emerging threats from quantum computing. To address this concern, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has started the process of standardizing Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC). In this paper, a detailed taxonomy of lightweight PQC algorithms are presented. The performance analysis of NIST Round 3 finalist (CRYSTALS-Kyber, SABER, NTRU and NTRU Encrypt) is done on a real Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) environment. The performance of these algorithms is analyzed with respect to the ten essential metrics such as throughput, latency, power consumption, energy consumption, memory usage, clock cycles, etc., for different payloads. The experimental results for each performance metrics is plotted individually for better analysis. The experimental result show that the SABER cipher outperforms other post-quantum ciphers.
This paper presents lightweight Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC), identifying its importance for a shift from traditional cryptographic schemes, vulnerable to quantum threats, to efficient PQC algorithms. Lattice-based cryptography stands out owing to its small key sizes and computational efficiency, with CRYSTALS-Kyber and NTRU algorithms being substantial representatives for Internet of Things (IoT) applications. However, PQC implementation in IoT environments has various obstacles to overcome. Minimizing energy consumption, scalability, and hardware limitations remain key challenges for PQC smooth integration into these resource-constrained networks. The present review analyzes the state-of-the-art PQC, makes security and performance comparisons among leading algorithms, and evaluates optimization techniques aimed at reducing resource overheads. Algorithmic refinement, hardware acceleration, and hybrid cryptography are also discussed as methods for mitigating these challenges. The results indicate that continuous research and development efforts should be made to improve the PQC technologies, and thus achieve their practical deployment in IoT systems. Quantum threats in IoT will be, hence, prevented with the employment of secure and scalable IoT ecosystems in a post-quantum world.
Quantum computing poses a significant threat to Internet of Things (IoT) communications that rely on classical cryptographic algorithms such as RSA, Diffie–Hellman, and Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC). These algorithms are vulnerable to Shor’s algorithm, making long-term data security uncertain, particularly for IoT devices with extended operational lifespans. Post-quantum cryptographic (PQC) algorithms offer resistance to quantum attacks; however, their deployment on resource-constrained IoT devices remains challenging due to limitations in processing power, memory, and energy consumption. This study benchmarks seven Key Encapsulation Mechanisms (KEMs) ML-KEM, Kyber, NTRU, BIKE, Classic McEliece, FrodoKEM, and sntrup761 across key generation, encapsulation, and decapsulation operations. Experiments were conducted using the liboqs library in a virtualized Linux environment running WSL2 to simulate constrained computing conditions. Results revealed substantial performance differences among the algorithms. ML-KEM-512 achieved the best overall performance, completing all operations in under 14 µs, while Kyber-512 showed similar efficiency. NTRU provided the fastest encapsulation but incurred significantly higher key-generation costs. BIKE, FrodoKEM, and Classic McEliece exhibited execution times unsuitable for real-time IoT applications. Overall, lattice-based schemes, particularly ML-KEM and Kyber, emerged as the most practical PQC solutions for resource-constrained IoT environments. The findings also demonstrate the usefulness of virtualized benchmarking for deployment planning.
With the emergence of quantum computing, it will soon break the time-tested cryptography systems, meaning the post-quantum cryptography will be needed to secure next-generation communication networks. This dissertation seeks to explore the implementation and realization of PQC algorithms across different sectors such as vehicular network, IoT devices, as well as large-scale networks of quantum computing. A detailed analysis of the algorithms, including CRYSTALS-Kyber, NTRU, and BB84 Quantum Key Distribution, was conducted to evaluate efficacy, computational efficiency, and quantum-enabled attacks. Key findings reveal that CRYSTALS-Kyber outperforms other algorithms in terms of encryption speed, reducing latency by 40% over NTRU in constrained environments. Furthermore, BB84 QKD protocols were demonstrated successfully with 98% data integrity compared with the noise network conditions. Optimized implementation of the NTRU using parallel computing achieved a 35% gain in processing efficiency and is thus considered worthy for resource-constrained IoT applications. This study confirms that PQC algorithms can be adapted to meet the unique demands of various fields, laying a strong foundation for their integration as quantum-resistant standards in secure communication systems.
With the emergence of quantum computing, it will soon break the time-tested cryptography systems, meaning the post-quantum cryptography will be needed to secure next-generation communication networks. This dissertation seeks to explore the implementation and realization of PQC algorithms across different sectors such as vehicular network, IoT devices, as well as large-scale networks of quantum computing. A detailed analysis of the algorithms, including CRYSTALS-Kyber, NTRU, and BB84 Quantum Key Distribution, was conducted to evaluate efficacy, computational efficiency, and quantum-enabled attacks. Key findings reveal that CRYSTALS-Kyber outperforms other algorithms in terms of encryption speed, reducing latency by 40% over NTRU in constrained environments. Furthermore, BB84 QKD protocols were demonstrated successfully with 98% data integrity compared with the noise network conditions. Optimized implementation of the NTRU using parallel computing achieved a 35% gain in processing efficiency and is thus considered worthy for resource-constrained IoT applications. This study confirms that PQC algorithms can be adapted to meet the unique demands of various fields, laying a strong foundation for their integration as quantum-resistant standards in secure communication systems.