The rapid advancement of quantum technology brings significant trouble to the public key encryption standards used presently. Traditional cryptographic algorithms rely on the complexity of a specific number of theoretical problems, but the computational capabilities of large-scale quantum computers would swiftly compromise these specific mathematics-based cryptographic algorithms. These quantum technology-based computers consist of millions of qubits which can enable them to damage nearly all modern public-key cryptographic systems. This security issue is particularly concerning Internet of Things (IoT) devices, which typically have limited resources and are thus more susceptible to emerging threats from quantum computing. To address this concern, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has started the process of standardizing Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC). In this paper, a detailed taxonomy of lightweight PQC algorithms are presented. The performance analysis of NIST Round 3 finalist (CRYSTALS-Kyber, SABER, NTRU and NTRU Encrypt) is done on a real Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) environment. The performance of these algorithms is analyzed with respect to the ten essential metrics such as throughput, latency, power consumption, energy consumption, memory usage, clock cycles, etc., for different payloads. The experimental results for each performance metrics is plotted individually for better analysis. The experimental result show that the SABER cipher outperforms other post-quantum ciphers.
The rapid advancement of quantum technology brings significant trouble to the public key encryption standards used presently. Traditional cryptographic algorithms rely on the complexity of a specific number of theoretical problems, but the computational capabilities of large-scale quantum computers would swiftly compromise these specific mathematics-based cryptographic algorithms. These quantum technology-based computers consist of millions of qubits which can enable them to damage nearly all modern public-key cryptographic systems. This security issue is particularly concerning Internet of Things (IoT) devices, which typically have limited resources and are thus more susceptible to emerging threats from quantum computing. To address this concern, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has started the process of standardizing Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC). In this paper, a detailed taxonomy of lightweight PQC algorithms are presented. The performance analysis of NIST Round 3 finalist (CRYSTALS-Kyber, SABER, NTRU and NTRU Encrypt) is done on a real Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) environment. The performance of these algorithms is analyzed with respect to the ten essential metrics such as throughput, latency, power consumption, energy consumption, memory usage, clock cycles, etc., for different payloads. The experimental results for each performance metrics is plotted individually for better analysis. The experimental result show that the SABER cipher outperforms other post-quantum ciphers.
Current improvements in quantum computing present a substantial challenge to classical cryptographic systems, which typically rely on problems that can be solved in polynomial time using quantum algorithms. Consequently, post-quantum cryptography (PQC) has emerged as a promising solution to emerging quantum-based cryptographic challenges. The greatest threat is public-key cryptosystems, which are primarily responsible for key exchanges. In PQC, key encapsulation mechanisms (KEMs) are crucial for securing key exchange protocols, particularly in Internet communication, virtual private networks (VPNs), and secure messaging applications. CRYSTALS-Kyber and NTRU are two well-known PQC KEMs offering robust security in the quantum world. However, even when quantum computers are functional, they are not easily accessible. IoT devices will not be able to utilize them directly, so there will still be a requirement to protect IoT devices from quantum attacks. Concerns such as limited computational power, energy efficiency, and memory constraints in devices such as those used in IoTs, embedded systems, and smart cards limit the use of these techniques in constrained environments. These concerns always arise there. To address this issue, this study conducts a broad comparative analysis of Kyber and NTRU, with special focus on their security, performance, and implementation efficiency in such environments (IOT/constrained environments). In addition, a case study was conducted by applying KEMs to a low-power embedded device to analyze their performance in real-world scenarios. These results offer an important comparison for cyber security engineers and cryptographers who are involved in integrating post-quantum cryptography into resource-constrained devices.
The seamless integration of Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) into public airspace necessitates a robust UAV Traffic Management (UTM) system. Information security in communications plays a pivotal role in ensuring the operational safety of the UTM. Maintaining the integrity and authentication of unicast communications, such as command and video information, is imperative to thwart tampering and impersonation. Encryption emerges as an optimal solution for safeguarding such data. Efficient utilization of symmetrical encryption mandates the imple-mentation of secure key exchange mechanisms. However, intro-ducingAuthenticated Key Exchange (AKE) standards on diminutive Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) encounters problems due to hardware limitations. To surmount this challenge, lightweight cryptographic algorithms tailored for resource-constrained hard-ware have been developed. Nonetheless, both lightweight and conventional cryptographic algorithms are susceptible to quantum computing threats. In response, post-quantum cryptographic primitives are undergoing standardization. This study assesses post-quantumKey Encapsulation Mechanism (KEM) candidates, namely CRYSTALS-Kyber, Hamming Quasi-Cyclic (HQC), and BIKE, on hardware resembling small UAVs. The evaluation of these algorithms focuses on computation time, considering real-time tasks during flights. The findings affirm the viability of employing unmodified standards on resource-constrained hardware concurrently with other priority tasks. Furthermore, quantum-vulnerable standards are also investigated to compare their performance against their more secure counterparts. All three post-quantum KEM candidates demonstrate usability in this environment, with CRYSTALS-Kyber being recommended for its superior performance, even surpassing certain prevailing standards.
The growth of quantum computing reveals a series of significant threats to cryptographic systems known today, such as RSA, ECC, and Diffie-Hellman, which are extremely important for Internet security, but are threatened by the increase in possible quantum attacks. The area of public and private key cryptography is vast. Therefore, this article addresses post-quantum cryptography (PQC) algorithms and the challenges of implementing them in Internet of Things (IoT) devices, given the difficulty of application due to restricted resources, such as RAM and clock speed . To this end, we will discuss the need for standardization of algorithms considering low-resource IoT devices, prioritizing RAM over ROM, meeting the needs of low-memory devices, which are lighter. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has validated four cryptographic systems that are secure against quantum attacks. We analyze the implications of these systems on the infrastructure of current networks and will compare in detail these algorithms and their respective strengths, weaknesses, and trade-offs. We evaluate the feasibility of post-quantum encryption (PQC) algorithms in resource-constrained IoT devices using the ESP-WROOM-32 microcontroller. Three cryptographic schemes were implemented and compared.
Cryptographic algorithms are crucial for secure communication in the Internet of Things (IoT). Quantum computers threaten public key cryptography algorithms like RSA (Rivest, Shamir, Adleman) and Diffie-Hellman (DH) key exchange schemes, which are widely in use today. As cryptographic algorithms are the foundation of secure internet communication, the development of Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) and Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) is essential to protect transactions over the internet. However, solutions like Quantum Key Distribution require heavy infrastructure. So, it is not feasible for the Internet of Things with fewer resources in computing power and form factor. Post-Quantum Cryptography is helpful on these devices. But, it needs further developments and improvements. This paper analyzes cryptography algorithms and protocols of IoT with different categories. Integrated PQC of National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) third level finalists on Raspberry Pi 4 (RPI4) board with Linux operating system. The performance of Post-Quantum Cryptography schemes for IoT has been evaluated. Finally, a Post-Quantum Cryptography scheme has been suggested for the Internet of Things based on the performance analysis.
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), commonly known as drones, are increasingly being employed across a broad spectrum of applications, ranging from military operations to commercial purposes. However, as UAVs become more integrated into everyday life, security and privacy concerns are similarly escalating due to vulnerabilities arising from operating on open wireless channels and having limited onboard computational resources. Moreover, with the emergence of quantum computers, conventional cryptographic methods that ensure the security and privacy of UAV communications are at severe risk. These risks encompass the possibility of unauthorized access, breaches of data, and cyber-physical attacks that jeopardize the integrity, confidentiality, and availability of UAV operations. Quantum computers are expected to break the conventional cryptography methods, such as symmetric and asymmetric schemes, with the support of Grover’s and Shor’s algorithms, respectively. Consequently, traditional cryptographic algorithms must give way to quantum-resistant algorithms, referred to as Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) algorithms. Although researchers actively develop, test, and standardize new PQC algorithms, the threat persists despite the progress made through these consistent efforts. This review article first examines the security and privacy landscape, including threats and requirements of UAVs. This article also discusses PQC and various PQC families and the status of the NIST’s implementation and standardization process. Lastly, we explore challenges and future directions in implementing PQC for UAVs.
With the emergence of quantum computing, it will soon break the time-tested cryptography systems, meaning the post-quantum cryptography will be needed to secure next-generation communication networks. This dissertation seeks to explore the implementation and realization of PQC algorithms across different sectors such as vehicular network, IoT devices, as well as large-scale networks of quantum computing. A detailed analysis of the algorithms, including CRYSTALS-Kyber, NTRU, and BB84 Quantum Key Distribution, was conducted to evaluate efficacy, computational efficiency, and quantum-enabled attacks. Key findings reveal that CRYSTALS-Kyber outperforms other algorithms in terms of encryption speed, reducing latency by 40% over NTRU in constrained environments. Furthermore, BB84 QKD protocols were demonstrated successfully with 98% data integrity compared with the noise network conditions. Optimized implementation of the NTRU using parallel computing achieved a 35% gain in processing efficiency and is thus considered worthy for resource-constrained IoT applications. This study confirms that PQC algorithms can be adapted to meet the unique demands of various fields, laying a strong foundation for their integration as quantum-resistant standards in secure communication systems.