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Applied Physics Letters

Characterization of photon arrival timing jitter in microwave kinetic inductance detector arrays

Majid G. Mohammad, Aled Cuda, W. Hawkins Clay, Jennifer Pearl Smith, Michael Arena, Joseph G. Redford, Josh Breckenridge, John I. Bailey, Nicholas Zobrist, Grégoire Coiffard, Galan Moody, Benjamin A. Mazin

Published Dec 2, 2024• 4 citations
Publisher

Abstract

We measure the photon arrival timing jitter of three superconducting Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) within a large array of 20,440 pixels, spanning resonating frequencies from 4 to 8 GHz. We analyze arrival time distributions for photon number n = 1 and n = 2 events and find the distribution full-width at half-maximum ranging from 132 to 796 ns across the three detectors. In combination with nearly zero dark counts and multiplexed readout schemes, sub-microsecond jitter can be leveraged for high-time resolved astronomy, quantum, and bio-physics applications. The measured system jitter serves as an upper limit for MKIDs, with optimized performance likely reaching tens of nanoseconds. We discuss how to improve upon the detector and readout performance.

DOI
10.1063/5.0229966

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This report covers work done at Data Processing and Readout System Development Laboratory at Nazarbayev University implementing data processing algorithm for readout electronics. Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) are photon detectors based on superconducting resonators. MKIDs are capable of detecting single photons with very small energy and micro second time resolutions. With proper readout electronic system it is possible to read arrays of thousands MKIDs using single signal line using frequency domain multiplexing (FDM). This report details the work done developing a laboratory setup for measuring MKIDs and developing code for frequency measurements. All the work was done using readout system based on a Re-configurable Open Archite Computing Hardware (ROACH) FPGA board and The Collaboration for Astronomy Signal Processing and Electronics Research (CASPER) software.

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Modeling and Simulation of Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detector Readout System Using Simulink and RF Blockset

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Microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) represent a class of low-temperature superconducting detectors employed for observing astronomical phenomena spanning the submillimeter through visible bands. Renowned for their intrinsic frequency-division multiplexing capability at microwave frequencies, MKIDs offer the advantage of eliminating the need for complex cryogenic multiplexing electronics. However, the overall readout architecture remains complex, necessitating sophisticated room-temperature electronics. Optimizing overall performance poses a significant challenge. This article introduces a novel approach to behavioral modeling and simulation for the MKID readout system utilizing Simulink and the RF Blockset library. The models incorporate major nonidealities of electronic components to investigate their impacts on system performance. In addition, the model of the MKID array is included based on measured transmission data, ensuring high simulation accuracy. The simulation tool facilitates the study and high-level design of the MKID readout system before delving into hardware implementation.

IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity•Mar 4, 2025•2 citations
We measure the photon arrival timing jitter of three superconducting Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) within a large array of 20,440 pixels, spanning resonating frequencies from 4 to 8 GHz. We analyze arrival time distributions for photon number n = 1 and n = 2 events and find the distribution full-width at half-maximum ranging from 132 to 796 ns across the three detectors. In combination with nearly zero dark counts and multiplexed readout schemes, sub-microsecond jitter can be leveraged for high-time resolved astronomy, quantum, and bio-physics applications. The measured system jitter serves as an upper limit for MKIDs, with optimized performance likely reaching tens of nanoseconds. We discuss how to improve upon the detector and readout performance.
This report covers work done at Data Processing and Readout System Development Laboratory at Nazarbayev University implementing data processing algorithm for readout electronics. Microwave Kinetic Inductance Detectors (MKIDs) are photon detectors based on superconducting resonators. MKIDs are capable of detecting single photons with very small energy and micro second time resolutions. With proper readout electronic system it is possible to read arrays of thousands MKIDs using single signal line using frequency domain multiplexing (FDM). This report details the work done developing a laboratory setup for measuring MKIDs and developing code for frequency measurements. All the work was done using readout system based on a Re-configurable Open Archite Computing Hardware (ROACH) FPGA board and The Collaboration for Astronomy Signal Processing and Electronics Research (CASPER) software.
In the next decades millimeter and sub-mm astronomy requires large format imaging arrays and broad-band spectrometers to complement the high spatial and spectral resolution of the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array. The desired sensors for these instruments should have a background limited sensitivity and a high optical efficiency and enable arrays thousands of pixels in size. Hybrid microwave kinetic inductance detectors consisting of NbTiN and Al have shown to satisfy these requirements. We present the second generation hybrid NbTiN-Al MKIDs, which are photon noise limited in both phase and amplitude readout for loading levels P850GHz < 10 fW. Thanks to the increased responsivity, the photon noise level achieved in phase allows us to simultaneously read out approximately 8000 pixels using state-of-the-art electronics. In addition, the choice of superconducting materials and the use of a Si lens in combination with a planar antenna gives these resonators the flexibility to operate within the frequency range 0:09 < v < 1:1 THz. Given these specifications, hybrid NbTiN-Al MKIDs will enable astronomically usable kilopixel arrays for sub-mm imaging and moderate resolution spectroscopy.
In this paper, we investigate the single photon response from the reflection of the microwave kinetic inductance detector (MKID) array. Reflection measurements are carried out using two configurations: one is measured simultaneously with the transmission, and the other is obtained with a single-ended MKID array terminated with an open load. Compared with the transmission, reflection measurements significantly reduce the readout noise of the single-ended MKID array. This is also reflected in the improvement of the median energy resolving power by around 20%–30% under pulsed photon illumination at λ = 405 nm, mainly due to an increase in the size of the resonance circle on the IQ plane. This method has the potential to be used to read out large MKID arrays.
We present results from completely lithographic antenna-coupled Microwave Kinetic Inductance detectors (MKIDs). MKIDs are superconducting resonators with resonant frequency and quality-factor which are highly sensitive to changes in the density of the quasiparticle population which occurs when photons above the superconducting gap energy are absorbed. The resonators are coupled to submm light through on-chip phased-array slot antennas. Each planar antenna consists of an array of N long slots which are fed along their length at M points. The resulting N*M feed points are combined in-phase using a binary summing tree made of low-loss superconducting microstrip lines. Due to its large size, the resulting planar antenna produces a narrow beam pattern and can therefore be used without additional optical coupling elements such as feedhorns or substrate lenses. The output of the antenna is a single superconducting thin-film microstrip line which can be efficiently coupled to one (or more) kinetic inductance coplanar waveguide resonators to produce a single (or multi-color) pixel in an imaging focal plane array, using in-line lumped element lithographic band-pass filters. Such highly integrated architectures can be easily fabricated on a single substrate, and many detectors can be frequency multiplexed through coupling to a single feedline. Microwave readout provides a lot of bandwidth per detector, allowing a large number of pixels to be read using a single cryogenic microwave amplifier and warm readout electronics.
We report on the design and performance of microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) sensitive to single photons in the optical to near-infrared range using hafnium as the sensor material. Our test device had a superconducting transition temperature of 395 mK and a room temperature normal state resistivity of 97 μΩ cm with RRR=1.6. Resonators on the device displayed internal quality factors of around 200 000. Similar to the analysis of MKIDs made from other highly resistive superconductors, we find that modeling the temperature response of the detector requires an extra broadening parameter in the superconducting density of states. Finally, we show that this material and design is compatible with a full-array fabrication process, which resulted in pixels with decay times of about 40 μs and resolving powers of ∼9 at 800 nm.
Microwave kinetic inductance detectors (MKIDs) represent a class of low-temperature superconducting detectors employed for observing astronomical phenomena spanning the submillimeter through visible bands. Renowned for their intrinsic frequency-division multiplexing capability at microwave frequencies, MKIDs offer the advantage of eliminating the need for complex cryogenic multiplexing electronics. However, the overall readout architecture remains complex, necessitating sophisticated room-temperature electronics. Optimizing overall performance poses a significant challenge. This article introduces a novel approach to behavioral modeling and simulation for the MKID readout system utilizing Simulink and the RF Blockset library. The models incorporate major nonidealities of electronic components to investigate their impacts on system performance. In addition, the model of the MKID array is included based on measured transmission data, ensuring high simulation accuracy. The simulation tool facilitates the study and high-level design of the MKID readout system before delving into hardware implementation.