A systematic research on the development of cryogenic complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (cryo-CMOS) circuits, for implementing the required control electronics to manipulate the quantum bit (qubit) state, is performed over the last few years. Scalability constitutes a key term regarding the evolution of quantum computing from theory to practical application and CMOS technology has been proven to be a promising candidate for implementing the coveted scalable next-generation quantum computers (QCs). Mixed-signal blocks, used for uniting the analog and digital domains, play a key role in the efficient functionality of the qubit control/readout system, thus there is an ever-increasing interest in their high-performance circuit realization. The critical challenge in this venture is to achieve efficient cryogenic operation at low temperatures, i.e., close to the qubit around 4 K, simultaneously keeping power requirements at low values. An overview and comparison of the cryo-CMOS Digital-to-Analog converter (DAC) and Analog-to-Digital converter (ADC) circuit implementations for quantum computing applications that heretofore have been proposed in the literature is presented in this work. A discussion on the challenges and future strategic steps that are henceforth required to proceed toward the development of a functional scalable quantum computer is also conducted.
A systematic research on the development of cryogenic complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (cryo-CMOS) circuits, for implementing the required control electronics to manipulate the quantum bit (qubit) state, is performed over the last few years. Scalability constitutes a key term regarding the evolution of quantum computing from theory to practical application and CMOS technology has been proven to be a promising candidate for implementing the coveted scalable next-generation quantum computers (QCs). Mixed-signal blocks, used for uniting the analog and digital domains, play a key role in the efficient functionality of the qubit control/readout system, thus there is an ever-increasing interest in their high-performance circuit realization. The critical challenge in this venture is to achieve efficient cryogenic operation at low temperatures, i.e., close to the qubit around 4 K, simultaneously keeping power requirements at low values. An overview and comparison of the cryo-CMOS Digital-to-Analog converter (DAC) and Analog-to-Digital converter (ADC) circuit implementations for quantum computing applications that heretofore have been proposed in the literature is presented in this work. A discussion on the challenges and future strategic steps that are henceforth required to proceed toward the development of a functional scalable quantum computer is also conducted.
Quantum computing holds the potential to solve problems beyond the capabilities of classical computers. However, realizing practical large-scale quantum computers faces critical challenges, including the key bottleneck in wiring quantum processors operating at cryogenic temperatures to their room temperature control electronics. This article explores cryo-CMOS ICs as an enabling technology to circumvent such a wiring bottleneck. After reviewing the basics of quantum computing and the behavior of CMOS devices at cryogenic temperatures, the requirements for the interface electronics for superconducting and semiconductor qubits are discussed, and state-of-the-art cryo-CMOS circuit solutions are briefly described, including a few hints to other qubit platforms. Finally, the article concludes with an overview of future challenges to be addressed to realize the vision of cryo-CMOS technology as an enabler of large-scale quantum computers with practical applications.
A fault-tolerant quantum computer with millions of quantum bits (qubits) requires massive yet very precise control electronics for the manipulation and readout of individual qubits. CMOS operating at cryogenic temperatures down to 4 K (cryo-CMOS) allows for closer system integration, thus promising a scalable solution to enable future quantum computers. In this paper, a cryogenic control system is proposed, along with the required specifications, for the interface of the classical electronics with the quantum processor. To prove the advantages of such a system, the functionality of key circuit blocks is experimentally demonstrated. The characteristic properties of cryo-CMOS are exploited to design a noise-canceling low-noise amplifier for spin-qubit RF-reflectometry readout and a class-F2,3digitally controlled oscillator required to manipulate the state of qubits.
Quantum computing requires scalable, energyefficient control electronics at cryogenic temperatures. Cryogenic CMOS (cryo-CMOS) enables integration with quantum processors, operating below 4 K while leveraging advanced CMOS processes. This paper reviews cryo-CMOS circuits and systems developed from 2016 to 2025, covering device behavior, analog, mixedsignal, and digital circuits, and system-level integration for largescale quantum control. Multiple implementations are compared, highlighting trade-offs in power, noise, scalability, and temperature operation. Key trends include fully integrated Cryo-SoCs, hybrid CMOS-III-V technologies, and machine-learning-assisted calibration. Remaining challenges in modeling, energy dissipation, and thermal management are discussed, outlining a roadmap for nextgeneration cryo-CMOS quantum architectures.
A fault tolerant scalable quantum computer requires more than 1000 Qubits to perform real time state correction and to improve the Qubit coherence time. The dense wiring connections required between the quantum processor placed at a 100 mK temperature and the room temperature control and readout electronics serve as a limiting factor in this system. Qubit control and readout electronics operating at 4 K temperature, placed closer to a quantum processor inside the dilution refrigerator avoids the dense wiring connections to room temperature electronics, and hence, serve as a potential solution to realize a scalable quantum computer. However, with no CMOS process technology models available at cryogenic temperatures, the design of a fully integrated, ultra-low power Qubit control and readout electronics at a sub-1 mW power consumption proves to be extremely challenging. In recent years, there has been a huge rise in interest among the research communities to understand and solve the device and circuit level challenges at deep cryogenic temperatures. This paper presents an overview of the recently published active and passive device nonidealities, circuit design challenges and solutions, and the future research directions in the Qubit control and readout electronics operating at deep cryogenic temperatures.
Quantum computers hold the promise to solve some of the most complex problems of today. The core of a quantum computer is a quantum processor, which is composed of quantum bits (qubits). Qubits are fragile and their state needs to be corrected in real time by a classical controller. Today, the control of qubits is done at room temperature by racks of instruments, while qubits operate at several tens of milli-Kelvin. To ensure compactness, and eventually scalability, we have proposed the use of controllers operating at a few Kelvin, so as to reduce the length of control cables, while potentially enabling superconductive interconnects, which enable virtually zero resistance and low thermal conductivity. We have chosen CMOS to achieve this functionality due to its scalable nature and overall miniaturization opportunities. Cryogenic CMOS, or cryo-CMOS, circuits and systems need to be carefully designed, so as to ensure low noise and high bandwidth, while operating at strict power budgets of a few milliwatts per qubit. In this paper, we outline the requirements of a classical controller and we show examples of such circuits and systems. Results and perspectives are presented discussing a roadmap for the future.
Quantum computers hold the promise to solve some of the most complex problems of today. The core of a quantum computer is a quantum processor, which is composed of quantum bits (qubits). Qubits are fragile and their state needs to be corrected in real time by a classical controller. Today, the control of qubits is done at room temperature by racks of instruments, while qubits operate at several tens of milli-Kelvin. To ensure compactness, and eventually scalability, we have proposed the use of controllers operating at a few Kelvin, so as to reduce the length of control cables, while potentially enabling superconductive interconnects, which enable virtually zero resistance and low thermal conductivity. We have chosen CMOS to achieve this functionality due to its scalable nature and overall miniaturization opportunities. Cryogenic CMOS, or cryo-CMOS, circuits and systems need to be carefully designed, so as to ensure low noise and high bandwidth, while operating at strict power budgets of a few milliwatts per qubit. In this paper, we outline the requirements of a classical controller and we show examples of such circuits and systems. Results and perspectives are presented discussing a roadmap for the future.