Summary Molecular beams are beams of molecules (which may be single atoms) travelling through vacuum at thermal velocities. They have been used to explore many properties of atoms and molecules, chiefly through their deflection in magnetic and electric inhomogeneous fields. Atomic beams first clearly established the phenomenon of space quantization, which means that the magnetic (or electric) energy of an atomic system in a given field can have only certain discrete values, and is not a continuum as classical physics supposed. Transitions between those energy states can be induced by radio-frequency fields; sharp resonances are observed and can be used to get accurate values of atomic and nuclear constants or to provide accurate frequency standards ('atomic clocks'). Molecular beams have also been used to test de Broglie's surmise that beams of particles should show wave properties (diffraction), to study collisions between molecules, and to supply spectroscopic sources in which the line broadening by Doppler effect is greatly reduced.
Summary Molecular beams are beams of molecules (which may be single atoms) travelling through vacuum at thermal velocities. They have been used to explore many properties of atoms and molecules, chiefly through their deflection in magnetic and electric inhomogeneous fields. Atomic beams first clearly established the phenomenon of space quantization, which means that the magnetic (or electric) energy of an atomic system in a given field can have only certain discrete values, and is not a continuum as classical physics supposed. Transitions between those energy states can be induced by radio-frequency fields; sharp resonances are observed and can be used to get accurate values of atomic and nuclear constants or to provide accurate frequency standards ('atomic clocks'). Molecular beams have also been used to test de Broglie's surmise that beams of particles should show wave properties (diffraction), to study collisions between molecules, and to supply spectroscopic sources in which the line broadening by Doppler effect is greatly reduced.
The history of molecular beams since the invention of molecular beam magnetic resonance is discussed. Rabi`s 1937 theoretical paper on resonance transitions led Rabi, Zacharias, Millman and Kusch to measure various nuclear magnetic moments by magnetic resonance. Kellogg, Rabi, Ramsey and Zacharias found a multiple line radio frequency spectrum in H{sub 2}, D{sub 2}, and HD which enabled them to measure not only the nuclear magnetic moments but also internal molecular interactions including that of the deuteron electric quadrupole moment. The method was successfully extended to atoms. In 1947 Nafe, Nelson and Rabi found that the observed hyperfine separations in atomic hydrogen and deuterium differed from theoretical predictions and Lamb and Retherford soon thereafter observed the large Lamb shift in the atomic fine structures; these two discoveries were the principal incentives for the development of QED, which was confirmed by Kusch`s measurement of the electron magnetic moment. Ramsey`s separated oscillatory field method increased the accuracy and frequency range of the resonance method and provided the basis for accurate atomic clocks. Townes and his associates used a molecular beam for the first Maser as did Goldenberg, Klepper and Ramsey for the atomic hydrogen maser. Many nuclear, atomic and molecular properties havemore » been measured with the molecular beam magnetic resonance. Van der Waal`s molecules and highly excited Rydberg atoms have been examined. Laser spectroscopy has been extensively studied with atomic beams and lasers have been used for state selection and excitation. Wieman and others used atomic beams to study parity and time reversal symmetry. Atomic beams have been slowed by laser cooling and Phillips and others have shown that the atoms can be cooled to about one micro-Kelvin, well below the Doppler limit. Collision experiments between two beams, often from jet sources, provided extensive and detailed information about molecular interactions.« less
Deflection by magnetic or electric field gradients has long been used to analyze or to alter the translational trajectories of neutral gas-phase atoms or molecules. Recent work has developed sources of slow, cold molecular beams that offer means to enhance markedly the attainable deflections, which are inversely proportional to the translational kinetic energy. The sensitivity and resolution can thus be much increased, typically by factors of 10(2)-10(4). We illustrate ways to exploit this enhanced deflection capability, particularly when balancing electric and magnetic deflections. Chemical scope can be greatly extended by utilizing feeble but ubiquitous interactions, especially the induced electric dipole due to the molecular polarizability and magnetic moments resulting from molecular rotation or nuclear spins. We also examine the effect of non-Maxwellian velocity distributions produced by supersonic expansions or by quantum statistics (pertinent for ultracold beams). Generic plots are provided, employing dimensionless variables, to facilitate the design and interpretation of experiments with deflections amplified by low kinetic energy.
Abstract : An experiment that tests a novel method for deflecting molecular beams using inhomogeneous resonance fields is described. If an electric field rotates at the same frequency as a molecule placed in it, the field and molecule remain aligned and the dipole moment-electric field interaction does not average to zero. If the field is spatially inhomogeneous then there is a net force on the molecule. This force can be used in making a molecular beam deflector. Resonance deflection of molecules in the J = 0 and 1 rotational states of a molecular beam of CsF has been observed. The deflection is produced by passing a collimated molecular beam of CsF through the center of a TE(111) microwave cavity which is oscillating at the J = 0 1 transition frequency, 11.019 GHz. The theory of the effect as well as potential applications are also discussed. (Modified author abstract)
We describe the state of the art in preparing, manipulating and detecting coherent molecular matter. We focus on experimental methods for handling the quantum motion of compound systems from diatomic molecules to clusters or biomolecules.Molecular quantum optics offers many challenges and innovative prospects: already the combination of two atoms into one molecule takes several well-established methods from atomic physics, such as for instance laser cooling, to their limits. The enormous internal complexity that arises when hundreds or thousands of atoms are bound in a single organic molecule, cluster or nanocrystal provides a richness that can only be tackled by combining methods from atomic physics, chemistry, cluster physics, nanotechnology and the life sciences.We review various molecular beam sources and their suitability for matter-wave experiments. We discuss numerous molecular detection schemes and give an overview over diffraction and interference experiments that have already been performed with molecules or clusters.Applications of de Broglie studies with composite systems range from fundamental tests of physics up to quantum-enhanced metrology in physical chemistry, biophysics and the surface sciences.Nanoparticle quantum optics is a growing field, which will intrigue researchers still for many years to come. This review can, therefore, only be a snapshot of a very dynamical process.
A study was conducted to demonstrate the manipulation of molecular beams with electric and magnetic fields. Seeded pulsed supersonic expansions were employed to conduct the investigations. The conservative forces exerted further downstream by the electric and magnetic fields enabled the researchers to manipulate and control the shape and the position of the distribution in the six-dimensional phase-space. All of the original experimental geometries were devised to create strong magnetic or electric field gradients to efficiently deflect particles from the beam axis. It was demonstrated that a detailed understanding of the influence of the external field on the energy level structure of the molecules was required for the manipulation of molecules with electric or magnetic fields.
Atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. Atomic physics typically refers to the study of atomic structure and the interaction between atoms. It is primarily concerned with the way in which electrons are arranged around the nucleus and the processes by which these arrangements change. This comprises ions, neutral atoms and, unless otherwise stated, it can be assumed that the term atom includes ions. The term atomic physics can be associated with nuclear power and nuclear weapons, due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in Standard English. Physicists distinguish between atomic physics -which deals with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons- and nuclear physics, which studies nuclear reactions and special properties of atomic nuclei. As with many scientific fields, strict delineation can be highly contrived and atomic physics is often considered in the wider context of atomic, molecular, and optical physics. Physics research groups are usually so classified. Atomic physics primarily considers atoms in isolation. Atomic models will consist of a single nucleus that may be surrounded by one or more bound electrons. It is not concerned with the formation of molecules (although much of the physics is identical), nor does it examine atoms in a solid state as condensed matter. It is concerned with processes such as ionization and excitation by photons or collisions with atomic particles. While modelling atoms in isolation may not seem realistic, if one considers atoms in a gas or plasma then the time-scales for atom-atom interactions are huge in comparison to the atomic processes that are generally considered. This means that the individual atoms can be treated as if each were in isolation, as the vast majority of the time they are. By this consideration atomic physics provides the underlying theory in plasma physics and atmospheric physics, even though both deal with very large numbers of atoms. Electrons form notional shells around the nucleus. These are normally in a ground state but can be excited by the absorption of energy from light (photons), magnetic fields, or interaction with a colliding particle (typically ions or other electrons). Electrons that populate a shell are said to be in a bound state. The energy necessary to remove an electron from its shell (taking it to infinity) is called the binding energy. Any quantity of energy absorbed by the electron in excess of this amount is converted to kinetic energy according to the conservation of energy. The atom is said to have undergone the process of ionization. If the electron absorbs a quantity of energy less than the binding energy, it will be transferred to an excited state. After a certain time, the electron in an excited state will "jump" (undergo a transition) to a lower state. In a neutral atom, the system will emit a photon of the difference in energy, since energy is conserved. If an inner electron has absorbed more than the binding energy (so that the atom ionizes), then a more outer electron may undergo a transition to fill the inner orbital. In this case, a visible photon or a characteristic x-ray is emitted, or a phenomenon known as the Auger effect may take place, where the released energy is transferred to another bound electron, causing it to go into the continuum. The Auger effect allows one to multiply ionize an atom with a single photon. There are rather strict selection rules as to the electronic configurations that can be reached by excitation by light — however there are no such rules for excitation by collision processes. One of the earliest steps towards atomic physics was the recognition that matter was composed of atoms. It forms a part of the texts written in 6th century BC to 2nd century BC such as those of Democritus or Vaisheshika Sutra written by Kanad. This theory was later developed in the modern sense of the basic unit of a chemical element by the British chemist and physicist John Dalton in the 18th century. At this stage, it wasn't clear what atoms were although they could be described and classified by their properties (in bulk). The invention of the periodic system of elements by Mendeleev was another great step forward. The true beginning of atomic physics is marked by the discovery of spectral lines and attempts to describe the phenomenon, most notably by Joseph von Fraunhofer. The study of these lines led to the Bohr atom model and to the birth of quantum mechanics. In seeking to explain atomic spectra an entirely new mathematical model of matter was revealed. As far as atoms and their electron shells were concerned, not only did this yield a better overall description, i.e. the atomic orbital model, but it also provided a new theoretical basis for chemistry (quantum chemistry) and spectroscopy. Since the Second World War, both theoretical and experimental fields have advanced at a rapid pace. This can be attributed to progress in computing technology, which has allowed larger and more sophisticated models of atomic structure and associated collision processes. Similar technological advances in accelerators, detectors, magnetic field generation and lasers have greatly assisted experimental work.