Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Log inSign up
Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Blog
Job Board
Q3AS

© 2026 Aqora Quantum S.A.S.

TermsPrivacyLegal Notice

Acta Physica Sinica

Eavesdropping and countermeasures for backflash side channel in fiber polarization-coded quantum key distribution

Yan-Hui Chen, Jindong Wang, Cong Du, Ruili Ma, Jia-Yu Zhao, Xiaojuan Qin, Zhengjun Wei, Zhi‐Ming Zhang

Published Jan 1, 2019• 3 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Nowadays, the practical security of quantum key distribution (QKD) is the biggest challenge. In practical implementation, the security of a practical system strongly depends on its device implementation, and device defects will create security holes. The information leakage from a receiving unit due to secondary photon emission (backflash) is caused by a single-photon detector in the avalanche process. Now studies have shown that the backflash will leak the information about time and polarization and the eavesdropping behavior will not generate additional error rate in the communication process. An eavesdropping scheme obtaining time information by using backflash is proposed. Targeting this security hole for backflash leaking polarization information, an eavesdropping scheme for obtaining polarization information by using backflash is proposed in free-space QKD; however, it has not been reported in fiber QKD. In this study, the eavesdropping scheme and countermeasures for obtaining information by using backflash in fiber polarization-coded QKD is proposed. Since the polarization state of the fiber polarization-coded QKD system is easy to change, the scheme is proposed based on the time-division multiplexing polarization compensation fiber polarization-coded QKD system. In theory, the eavesdropper in this scheme obtaining the key information by using the backflash is theoretically deduced, and corrects the polarization change of the backflash by time-division multiplexing polarization compensation method, thus obtaining the accurate polarization information. The probability of backflash in the fiber polarization-coded QKD is measured to be 0.05, and the information leakage in the proposed eavesdropping scheme is quantified. The lower limit of the information obtained by the eavesdropper is 2.5 × 10–4. Due to the fact that the polarization compensation process increases invalid information in actual operation, the information obtained by the eavesdropper will be further reduced, thus obtaining the lower limit of information leakage. The results show that the backflash leaks a small amount of key information in a time-multiplexed polarization-compensated fiber polarization-coded QKD system. The wavelength characteristics of the backflash can be utilized to take corresponding defense methods. Backflash has a wide spectral range, and the count of backflash has a peak wavelength. So, tunable filters and isolators can be used to reduce backflash leakage, thereby reducing the information leakage.

DOI
10.7498/aps.68.20190464

Related papers

Eavesdropping and countermeasures for backflash side channel in quantum cryptography

Paulo Vinicius Pereira Pinheiro, Poompong Chaiwongkhot, Shihan Sajeed +5 more

Quantum key distribution (QKD) promises information theoretic secure key as long as the device performs as assumed in the theoretical model. One of the assumptions is an absence of information leakage about individual photon detection outcomes of the receiver unit. Here we investigate the information leakage from a QKD receiver due to photon emission caused by detection events in single-photon detectors (backflash). We test commercial silicon avalanche photodiodes and a photomultiplier tube, and find that the former emit backflashes. We study the spectral, timing and polarization characteristics of these backflash photons. We experimentally demonstrate on a free-space QKD receiver that an eavesdropper can distinguish which detector has clicked inside it, and thus acquire secret information. A set of countermeasures both in theory and on the physical devices are discussed.

arXiv:1804.10317•Optics Express•Jul 31, 2018•64 citations

Quantum key distribution security threat: the backflash light case

Alice Meda, Ivo Pietro Degiovanni, Alberto Tosi +3 more

Quantum key distribution (QKD)1 is a quantum technology already present in the market. This technology will become an essential point to secure our communication systems and infrastructure when today’s public key cryptography will be broken by either a mathematical algorithm or by, eventually, the development of quantum computers. One of the main task of quantum metrology and standardization in the next future is ensuring that QKD apparatus works as expected, and appropriate countermeasures against quantum hacking are taken. In this paper, we discuss the security of one of the QKD most critical (and quantum-hackered) components, i.e., single photon detectors based on fiber-pigtailed InGaAs SPADs. We analyze their secondary photon emission (backflash light) that can be exploited by an eavesdropper (Eve) to gain information without introducing errors in the key. We observed a significant light leakage from the detection event of fiber-pigtailed InGaAs SPADs. This may represent a significant security threat in all QKD apparatus. We provide a method to quantify the amount of potential information leakage, and we propose a solution to fix this potential security bug in practical QKD apparatus.

SPIE Quantum Technologies•May 21, 2018•2 citations

Quantifying backflash radiation to prevent zero-error attacks in quantum key distribution

Alice Meda, Ivo Pietro Degiovanni, Alberto Tosi +3 more

Secondary photons released from photon detector when quantum cryptographic keys are shared between parties represent a significant eavesdropping threat. Attempts to listen in on quantum key distributions are, in theory, detected as automatic changes to quantum states. But Alice Meda from the INRIM in Italy and colleagues have now demonstrated that the detectors used to spot single photons in many commercial quantum key distribution boxes can leak information through ‘backflash’–bursts of light triggered when a photon hits an avalanche photodiode. The team constructed a sensitive new machine for detecting backflashes and determined data leakage rates nearing 10%. As well, each photodetector emitted specific signatures that might give attackers another entry point. Wide-bandwidth filters or special circulators incorporated into the quantum boxes can help secure this breach, the researchers propose.

Light Science & Applications•Dec 5, 2016•60 citations

Quantifying the upper limit of backflash attack in quantum key distribution

Jialei Su, Junxuan Liu, Zihao Chen +6 more

Quantum key distribution (QKD) provides information-theoretic security grounded in the fundamental laws of physics. Nevertheless, practical imperfections can introduce side channels that expose QKD systems to quantum hacking, especially passive attacks that are inherently difficult to detect. In this study, we experimentally and theoretically investigate the upper limit of the backflash attack-a representative passive side-channel threat. Using a fully equipped fiber-based QKD receiver, we demonstrate the feasibility of the attack and reveal its limited capability in distinguishing quantum states. We further develop a theoretical framework to quantify the maximum distinguishability achievable by an eavesdropper, taking into account the broadband spectral nature of backflash photons. The analysis shows that Eve can extract effective key information from at most 95.7% of the backflash photons. Based on these findings, we evaluate the secure key rate of a decoy-state BB84 QKD system under backflash attack. Our results provide a quantitative assessment of the vulnerability of QKD systems to backflash emissions and offer a general methodology to evaluate the practical security of QKD systems.

arXiv:2501.09984•Physical Review A•Jan 13, 2026•2 citations

Influence of QKD apparatus parameters on the backflash attack

Sergey A. Bogdanov, Ivan S. Sushchev, Andrey N. Klimov +3 more

For examining QKD systems for sustainability to the “backflash” attack, it is necessary to measure the probability of photon re-emission and calculate the maximum possible probability of backflash for the secret key to remain secure. In this paper, we present research on backflash probabilities dependencies on parameters of fiber-based QKD systems. The SPAD gate width for each QKD system and quantum communication protocol is individual, therefore, it is necessary to consider the dependence of the probability of photon re-emission on the SPAD gate width. Moreover, as a result of Laser Damage Attack, active elements, such as a variable attenuator or a pulsed laser, may not work quite stable, eventually, as far as the mean photon number per pulse (μ) varies within a small range, the maximum backflash probability can fluctuate. We demonstrate an experimental setup of correlation “backflash” measurements by optical reflectometry with very low dark count rate and parasitic noise, furthermore, the contribution of reflected photons is negligible in comparison with the classical optical reflectometry scheme. Therefore, the signal-to-noise ratio was increased by at least two orders of magnitude. The obtained experimental data demonstrate the variation of the backflash probability of the single-photon detector depending on the SPAD gate width and the mean photon number per pulse sent by Alice to Bob. Analysis of the calculated backflash probabilities enables to estimate the maximum possible information leakage, depending on the parameters of equipment. In the future, the obtained experimental results can be used to adjust the optimal parameters of QKD systems to guarantee communication protocol security.

SPIE Quantum Technologies•May 6, 2022•1 citation

Backflash light characterization to prevent QKD zero-error hacking

Alice Meda, Ivo Pietro Degiovanni, Alberto Tosi +3 more

Single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) are the most commercially diffused solution for single-photon counting in quantum key distribution (QKD) applications. However, the secondary photon emission, arising from the avalanche of charge carriers during a photon detection, may be exploited by an eavesdropper to gain information without forcing errors in the transmission key. In this paper, we characterise such backflash light in gated InGaAs/InP SPADs, and its spectral and temporal characterization for different detector models and different operating parameters. We qualitatively bound the maximum information leakage due to backflash light, and propose a solution.

arXiv:1605.05562•May 18, 2016•18 citations
Nowadays, the practical security of quantum key distribution (QKD) is the biggest challenge. In practical implementation, the security of a practical system strongly depends on its device implementation, and device defects will create security holes. The information leakage from a receiving unit due to secondary photon emission (backflash) is caused by a single-photon detector in the avalanche process. Now studies have shown that the backflash will leak the information about time and polarization and the eavesdropping behavior will not generate additional error rate in the communication process. An eavesdropping scheme obtaining time information by using backflash is proposed. Targeting this security hole for backflash leaking polarization information, an eavesdropping scheme for obtaining polarization information by using backflash is proposed in free-space QKD; however, it has not been reported in fiber QKD. In this study, the eavesdropping scheme and countermeasures for obtaining information by using backflash in fiber polarization-coded QKD is proposed. Since the polarization state of the fiber polarization-coded QKD system is easy to change, the scheme is proposed based on the time-division multiplexing polarization compensation fiber polarization-coded QKD system. In theory, the eavesdropper in this scheme obtaining the key information by using the backflash is theoretically deduced, and corrects the polarization change of the backflash by time-division multiplexing polarization compensation method, thus obtaining the accurate polarization information. The probability of backflash in the fiber polarization-coded QKD is measured to be 0.05, and the information leakage in the proposed eavesdropping scheme is quantified. The lower limit of the information obtained by the eavesdropper is 2.5 × 10–4. Due to the fact that the polarization compensation process increases invalid information in actual operation, the information obtained by the eavesdropper will be further reduced, thus obtaining the lower limit of information leakage. The results show that the backflash leaks a small amount of key information in a time-multiplexed polarization-compensated fiber polarization-coded QKD system. The wavelength characteristics of the backflash can be utilized to take corresponding defense methods. Backflash has a wide spectral range, and the count of backflash has a peak wavelength. So, tunable filters and isolators can be used to reduce backflash leakage, thereby reducing the information leakage.
Quantum key distribution (QKD) promises information theoretic secure key as long as the device performs as assumed in the theoretical model. One of the assumptions is an absence of information leakage about individual photon detection outcomes of the receiver unit. Here we investigate the information leakage from a QKD receiver due to photon emission caused by detection events in single-photon detectors (backflash). We test commercial silicon avalanche photodiodes and a photomultiplier tube, and find that the former emit backflashes. We study the spectral, timing and polarization characteristics of these backflash photons. We experimentally demonstrate on a free-space QKD receiver that an eavesdropper can distinguish which detector has clicked inside it, and thus acquire secret information. A set of countermeasures both in theory and on the physical devices are discussed.
Quantum key distribution (QKD)1 is a quantum technology already present in the market. This technology will become an essential point to secure our communication systems and infrastructure when today’s public key cryptography will be broken by either a mathematical algorithm or by, eventually, the development of quantum computers. One of the main task of quantum metrology and standardization in the next future is ensuring that QKD apparatus works as expected, and appropriate countermeasures against quantum hacking are taken. In this paper, we discuss the security of one of the QKD most critical (and quantum-hackered) components, i.e., single photon detectors based on fiber-pigtailed InGaAs SPADs. We analyze their secondary photon emission (backflash light) that can be exploited by an eavesdropper (Eve) to gain information without introducing errors in the key. We observed a significant light leakage from the detection event of fiber-pigtailed InGaAs SPADs. This may represent a significant security threat in all QKD apparatus. We provide a method to quantify the amount of potential information leakage, and we propose a solution to fix this potential security bug in practical QKD apparatus.
Secondary photons released from photon detector when quantum cryptographic keys are shared between parties represent a significant eavesdropping threat. Attempts to listen in on quantum key distributions are, in theory, detected as automatic changes to quantum states. But Alice Meda from the INRIM in Italy and colleagues have now demonstrated that the detectors used to spot single photons in many commercial quantum key distribution boxes can leak information through ‘backflash’–bursts of light triggered when a photon hits an avalanche photodiode. The team constructed a sensitive new machine for detecting backflashes and determined data leakage rates nearing 10%. As well, each photodetector emitted specific signatures that might give attackers another entry point. Wide-bandwidth filters or special circulators incorporated into the quantum boxes can help secure this breach, the researchers propose.
Quantum key distribution (QKD) provides information-theoretic security grounded in the fundamental laws of physics. Nevertheless, practical imperfections can introduce side channels that expose QKD systems to quantum hacking, especially passive attacks that are inherently difficult to detect. In this study, we experimentally and theoretically investigate the upper limit of the backflash attack-a representative passive side-channel threat. Using a fully equipped fiber-based QKD receiver, we demonstrate the feasibility of the attack and reveal its limited capability in distinguishing quantum states. We further develop a theoretical framework to quantify the maximum distinguishability achievable by an eavesdropper, taking into account the broadband spectral nature of backflash photons. The analysis shows that Eve can extract effective key information from at most 95.7% of the backflash photons. Based on these findings, we evaluate the secure key rate of a decoy-state BB84 QKD system under backflash attack. Our results provide a quantitative assessment of the vulnerability of QKD systems to backflash emissions and offer a general methodology to evaluate the practical security of QKD systems.
For examining QKD systems for sustainability to the “backflash” attack, it is necessary to measure the probability of photon re-emission and calculate the maximum possible probability of backflash for the secret key to remain secure. In this paper, we present research on backflash probabilities dependencies on parameters of fiber-based QKD systems. The SPAD gate width for each QKD system and quantum communication protocol is individual, therefore, it is necessary to consider the dependence of the probability of photon re-emission on the SPAD gate width. Moreover, as a result of Laser Damage Attack, active elements, such as a variable attenuator or a pulsed laser, may not work quite stable, eventually, as far as the mean photon number per pulse (μ) varies within a small range, the maximum backflash probability can fluctuate. We demonstrate an experimental setup of correlation “backflash” measurements by optical reflectometry with very low dark count rate and parasitic noise, furthermore, the contribution of reflected photons is negligible in comparison with the classical optical reflectometry scheme. Therefore, the signal-to-noise ratio was increased by at least two orders of magnitude. The obtained experimental data demonstrate the variation of the backflash probability of the single-photon detector depending on the SPAD gate width and the mean photon number per pulse sent by Alice to Bob. Analysis of the calculated backflash probabilities enables to estimate the maximum possible information leakage, depending on the parameters of equipment. In the future, the obtained experimental results can be used to adjust the optimal parameters of QKD systems to guarantee communication protocol security.
Single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) are the most commercially diffused solution for single-photon counting in quantum key distribution (QKD) applications. However, the secondary photon emission, arising from the avalanche of charge carriers during a photon detection, may be exploited by an eavesdropper to gain information without forcing errors in the transmission key. In this paper, we characterise such backflash light in gated InGaAs/InP SPADs, and its spectral and temporal characterization for different detector models and different operating parameters. We qualitatively bound the maximum information leakage due to backflash light, and propose a solution.