Recent years have seen the continuous evolution of technology, which has led to the definition of frameworks such as the internet of things (IoT) and Industry 4.0. These paradigms are producing enormous quantities of data every single day. These data are subject to data analysis, shared publicly or kept secret. Traditionally, this task was carried out using databases. With the advent of Blockchain and other distributed ledger technologies (DLTs), instead, these data have a new way of being stored and shared (or kept private). The last actor role in this play is acted by quantum computers, since sufficiently large quantum computers are expected to seriously threaten the security and integrity of DLTs thanks to their totally different way of representing information. This paper aims to investigate the real threats for blockchain due to quantum computing and review post-quantum DLT solutions for traceability applications.
Recent years have seen the continuous evolution of technology, which has led to the definition of frameworks such as the internet of things (IoT) and Industry 4.0. These paradigms are producing enormous quantities of data every single day. These data are subject to data analysis, shared publicly or kept secret. Traditionally, this task was carried out using databases. With the advent of Blockchain and other distributed ledger technologies (DLTs), instead, these data have a new way of being stored and shared (or kept private). The last actor role in this play is acted by quantum computers, since sufficiently large quantum computers are expected to seriously threaten the security and integrity of DLTs thanks to their totally different way of representing information. This paper aims to investigate the real threats for blockchain due to quantum computing and review post-quantum DLT solutions for traceability applications.
Amid breakthroughs in quantum computing, blockchain systems are experiencing a dual-track evolution characterized by threats from quantum attacks and empowerment through quantum technologies. Traditional blockchain architectures, which rely on public-private key cryptography and hash functions, face systemic risks to core functions such as transaction integrity verification and consensus security when exposed to quantum attacks. This paper systematically analyzes and compares two distinct technical approaches in the field of quantum-secure blockchain: post-quantum blockchain and quantum blockchain. The former enhances existing systems by integrating post-quantum cryptographic algorithms to resist quantum threats, aiming for a smooth transition from current architectures. The latter reconstructs distributed ledger technology based on quantum information properties such as entanglement, forming novel architectures involving quantum key distribution networks, quantum digital signatures, and quantum consensus algorithms. The feasibility and development potential of these approaches are examined in application scenarios such as industrial IoT. A comparative analysis is conducted on their technical constraints and implementation challenges from the perspectives of transaction efficiency, security model validation, and standardization maturity. This lays a foundation for future empirical research. Finally, potential development paths are discussed, and targeted research directions such as diversified migration and dynamic hybrid strategies are proposed to guide further studies.
The integration of Quantum Computing (QC) and Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) is poised to fundamentally reshape modern accounting by transforming how financial data is processed, secured, and verified. QC, utilising qubits, will exponentially enhance data analytics, risk assessment, and real-time financial forecasting, accelerating complex auditing tasks far beyond the capabilities of classical systems. In parallel, DLT, such as blockchain, provides a decentralised, immutable record of transactions, significantly increasing transparency and trust. This synergy may enable real-time analysis, continuous auditing, and intelligent automation, converting traditional static, centralised processes into dynamic, transparent ecosystems. Together, this convergence may redefine accounting, auditing, and finance, ushering in a new era of digital trust and efficiency. This technological shift may present challenges. Quantum algorithms pose a direct threat to existing blockchain cryptography, necessitating the urgent development of quantum-resistant cryptography and quantum key distribution to protect financial data. Additionally, the profession must adapt; accountants will need to acquire new skills in data science and quantum information theory. Successful adoption will require substantial infrastructure investment, interdisciplinary collaboration, and the creation of new accounting standards to accommodate these quantum-era technologies. While disruptive, the convergence of QC and DLT promises unprecedented efficiency, transparency, and trust in financial reporting and auditing. However, this technological shift presents significant challenges. Quantum algorithms pose a direct threat to existing blockchain cryptography, necessitating the urgent development of quantum-resistant cryptography and quantum key distribution to protect financial data. Additionally, the profession must adapt; accountants will need to acquire new skills in data science and quantum information theory. Successful adoption will require substantial infrastructure investment, interdisciplinary collaboration, and the creation of new accounting standards to accommodate these quantum-era technologies. While disruptive, the convergence of QC and DLT promises unprecedented efficiency, transparency, and trust in financial reporting and auditing.
The internet is evolving—from sharing information (Web 1.0) to exchanging value (Web 2.0). Blockchain technology, also known as distributed ledger technology, is powering this transformation. By using a network of computers, cryptography and irreversible records, blockchain enables secure and transparent transactions without intermediaries. This unlocks the potential to streamline the transfer of digital assets like money, intellectual property, and more, revolutionising industries. Blockchain's rapid rise is fuelled by global investments and a surge in government and corporate innovation. It offers the promise of digitised records, reduced costs, real-time solutions and even greater efficiency and transparency in governance. However, challenges exist alongside these benefits, including the need for regulatory frameworks and adaptation to the potential threats posed by quantum computing. The development of quantum-resistant blockchain solutions will be crucial to ensure security as this technology matures. Like all powerful technologies, blockchain's impact depends on how it's implemented—offering both transformation and potential for disruption.
The advent of quantum computing threatens blockchain protocols and networks because they utilize non-quantum resistant cryptographic algorithms. When quantum computers become robust enough to run Shor's algorithm on a large scale, the most used asymmetric algorithms, utilized for digital signatures and message encryption, such as RSA, (EC)DSA, and (EC)DH, will be no longer secure. Quantum computers will be able to break them within a short period of time. Similarly, Grover's algorithm concedes a quadratic advantage for mining blocks in certain consensus protocols such as proof of work. Today, there are hundreds of billions of dollars denominated in cryptocurrencies and other digital assets that rely on blockchain ledgers as well as thousands of blockchain-based applications storing value in blockchain networks. Cryptocurrencies and blockchain-based applications require solutions that guarantee quantum resistance in order to preserve the integrity of data and assets in these public and immutable ledgers. The quantum threat and some potential solutions are well understood and presented in the literature. However, most proposals are theoretical, require large QKD networks, or propose new quantum-resistant blockchain networks to be built from scratch. Our work, which is presented in this paper, is pioneer in proposing an end-to-end framework for post-quantum blockchain networks that can be applied to existing blockchain to achieve quantum-resistance. We have developed an open-source implementation in an Ethereum-based (i.e., EVM compatible) network that can be extended to other existing blockchains. For the implementation we have (i) used quantum entropy to generate post-quantum key pairs, (ii) established post-quantum TLS connections and X.509 certificates to secure the exchange of information between blockchain nodes over the internet without needing a large QKD network, (iii) introduced a post-quantum second signature in transactions using Falcon-512 post-quantum keys, and (iv) developed the first on-chain verification of post-quantum signatures using three different mechanisms that are compared and analyzed: Solidity smart-contracts run by the validators for each transaction, modified EVM Opcode, and precompiled smart contracts.
In cybersecurity, blockchain is essential for achieving privacy of IoT data as it provides the immutability feature. Blockchain is currently one of the most cutting-edge technologies, and it has received a lot of attention and research. The majority of current cryptography techniques could be broken with the efforts made to realize large-scale quantum computers. In order to create blockchain frameworks, a quantum tool must be able to execute at the level of digital computers and fend off potential attacks from both digital and quantum computers. A thorough analysis of the current literature on implementing Blockchain and Quantum Computing over IoT network will be crucial. In order to comprehend the state-of-the-art of this developing technology, this work aims to highlight unresolved issues that the IoT community will need to deal with in the upcoming years. This article also presents a comprehensive review of Quantum Computing and Blockchain Technologies deployed over IoT applications. Keywords Quantum Computing, Internet-of-Things (IoT), Blockchain, Cryptography, Quantum resistant Cryptosystems
Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) is a shared, synchronized and replicated data spread spatially and temporally with no centralized administration and/or storage. Each node has a complete and identical set of records. All participants contribute to building and maintaining the distributed ledger. Current DLT technologies fall into two broad categories. Those that use block-chains such as in Bitcoin or Ethereum, and newer approaches which reduce computational loads for verification. All current approaches though difficult to crack can be vulnerable to quantum algorithms using Quantum Information Technologies (QIT). This effort joins the 2 technologies, constructing a Quantum Distributed Ledger (QDL) which provides a higher level of security using QIT and a decentralized data depository using DLT. This enhanced security prevents middleman attacks with quantum computers yet retains the advantages of a decentralized ledger of data.