We present current theories about the structure of space and time, where the building blocks are some fundamental entities (yes-no experiment, quantum processes, spin net-work, preparticles) that do not presuppose the existence of space and time. The relations among these objects are the base for a pregeometry of discrete character, the continuous limit of which gives rise to the physical properties of the space and time. 1
We present current theories about the structure of space and time, where the building blocks are some fundamental entities (yes-no experiment, quantum processes, spin net-work, preparticles) that do not presuppose the existence of space and time. The relations among these objects are the base for a pregeometry of discrete character, the continuous limit of which gives rise to the physical properties of the space and time. 1
This paper introduces a theoretical framework that bridges the conceptual divide between quantum mechanics and relativity by proposing a fundamental building block of the universe: the “Space-Time* quantum.” The theory posits that every object possesses an inherent property, Time* — defined as the reciprocal of its intrinsic frequency. The Space-Time* quantum is a composite entity, consisting of a timeless space energy and a kinetic Time* energy. This framework provides a new perspective on wave-particle duality, the double-slit experiment, and quantum entanglement. It re-examines the principles of Special Relativity, offering a conceptual and visual explanation of phenomena such as time dilation and length contraction as a consequence of changes in the Space-Time quanta. The theory also provides an alternative view on the origin of the universe and the nature of gravity, suggesting that gravitational effects arise from an energy deficiency rather than a curvature of spacetime. This paper establishes a conceptual foundation for further mathematical development to test and validate these new insights.
We use the Relational Blockworld (RBW) interpretation of quantum mechanics to resolve the foundational problems therein. As predicted by Smolin, the resolution of these problems is not independent of the problem of unification and the nature of time. Specifically, RBW requires a theory fundamental to quantum physics in which one must explicitly construct dynamical/diachronic entities (objects obtained via trans-temporal identification) from 'relations'. We use discrete graph theory to propose heuristically the nature of this underlying theory, which is based on a self-consistency criterion for the mutual construct of dynamical/diachronic entities, space and time whence a spatiotemporally discrete action fundamental to the path integral approach to quantum and classical physics. The proposed unification scheme suggests a novel approach to quantum gravity.
Quantum theory is the soul of contemporary physics. It was discovered in an adventurous way, under the urge to solve the puzzles posed by atomic spectra and blackbody radiation. But after its invention, it immediately became clear that it was not just a theory of specific physical systems: it was rather a new language of universal applicability. Already in 1928, the theory had received solid mathematical foundations by Hilbert, von Neumann, and Nordheim, and this work was brought to completion in the monumental work of von Neumann, in the form that we still study nowadays. The theory is extraordinarily successful, and its predictions have been confirmed to an astonishing level of precision in a large spectrum of experiments. However, almost 90 years after von Neumann's book, quantum theory remains mysterious. Its mathematical formulation – based on Hilbert spaces and self-adjoint operators – is far from having an intuitive interpretation. The association of physical systems to Hilbert spaces whose unit vectors represent pure states, the representation of transformations by unitary operators and of observables by self-adjoint operators – all such postulates look artificial and ad hoc . A slightly more operational approach is provided by the C * -algebraic formulation of quantum theory – still, this formulation relies on the assumption that observables form an algebra , where the physical meanings of the multiplication and the sum are far from clear. In short, the postulates of quantum theory impose mathematical structures without providing any simple reason for this choice: the mathematics of Hilbert spaces is adopted as a magic blackbox that “works well” at producing experimental predictions. However, in a satisfactory axiomatization of a physical theory the mathematical structures should emerge as a consequence of postulates that have a direct physical interpretation. By this we mean postulates referring, e.g., to primitive notions like physical system, measurement, or process, rather than notions like, e.g., Hilbert space, C * -algebra, unit vector, or selfadjoint operator. The crucial question thus remains unanswered: why quantum theory? Which are the principles at the basis of the theory? A case that is often invoked in contrast is that of Special Relativity theory, which directly follows from the simple understandable principle of relativity.
Description This work develops a process-based theoretical framework for the emergence of time from entangled discrete quantum processes, addressing one of the most fundamental open problems in quantum theory and the foundations of physics. Time is not assumed as a primitive, continuous, or external parameter. Instead, it is shown to arise as an emergent relational property of discrete process units—P-Tacts (П-такты)—and the entanglement structures connecting them. The central methodological shift of this work consists in replacing time-based evolution with process succession and graph structure. Quantum dynamics is described in terms of discrete operational steps, whose relational organization generates effective notions of temporal order, simultaneity, directionality, and causal structure. Within this approach, temporal relations are encoded in process graphs, rather than introduced through background spacetime or external clocks. The framework provides a unified and physically grounded explanation of: the emergence of temporal order without a fundamental time parameter, indefinite causal order as a natural consequence of superposed process graphs, quantum switch phenomena without higher-order causal primitives, and the appearance of classical temporal flow as a coarse-grained limit of dense entangled process networks. Special attention is given to higher-order organizational structures of process graphs. The progression from simple graph configurations to pentagonal, pentagram, and ultimately pentacle topologies illustrates how increasing structural complexity gives rise to rich temporal and causal behavior. These structures are purely processual and topological, not geometric embeddings in spacetime. The approach is fully compatible with unitary quantum mechanics and naturally aligns with the Everett interpretation, where branching corresponds to divergence of process paths rather than wave-function collapse. Temporal structure is therefore observer-relative and emergent, while the global process graph remains fully quantum and coherent. This article is not a standalone result but part of a coherent and cumulative research program devoted to establishing P-Tacts as primitive units of quantum theory and demonstrating how time, causality, spacetime structure, and information flow emerge from discrete quantum processes. For full conceptual and technical context, the present work should be read together with the following foundational publications. Related works (research program) Pavlov, M. (2026). Quantum Switch as an Emergent Process Structure from Discrete Process Tacts (П-такт)https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18498181 Pavlov, M. (2026). Quantum Switch and Teleportationhttps://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18509173 Pavlov, M. (2026). Emergence of Causality, Gravity, Time, and Three-Dimensional Space from Discrete P-Tact (П-такт) Dynamicshttps://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18504244 Pavlov, M. (2026). P Tact (П-такт) as the Primitive Unit of Quantum TheoryZenodo, 07.02.2026https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18516711 Pavlov, M. (2026). Indefinite Causal Order as Superposition of Process Graphshttps://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18519010 Pavlov, M. (2026). Everett Interpretation Formalized via P-Tact (П-такт) Path Graphshttps://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.18524745 Cited text (for quotation and reference) This work demonstrates that time is not a fundamental parameter of quantum theory but an emergent property arising from the entanglement structure of discrete quantum processes (P-Tacts). Temporal order, simultaneity, and causal relations are encoded in the topology of process graphs rather than imposed through background spacetime or external clocks.