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The International Conference on Mathematics and Engineering Physics/The International Conference on Mathematics and Engineering Physics

A Substitute to the Quantum Theory by an Entropy Approach

Salama Abdelhady

Published May 1, 2014• 2 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Following an entropy approach that replaced time by entropy in Maxwell's wave equation and reviewing experimental results, it was possible to prove a unique nature of electrons as particles, a unique nature of light as waves and to end the duality confusion. Additionally, the postulate of energy quantization into quanta each of magnitude "hv " is proved as a conflict to the energy's nature as electromagnetic waves. Such conclusions led to violating main postulates of the quantum theory. Similarly, Schrodinger's equation that was introduced as a foundation of quantum mechanics to protest the duality confusions looses its meaning as the electron has a unique nature. According to the introduced entropy approach and measurement results, the photoelectric effect is found as a thermoelectric effect whose efficiency may approach the efficiency of Carnot cycle. Such conclusion violates the analysis of Shockley and Queisser that depends on the quantum approach and predicted an experimentally broken efficiency limit. As a conclusion, it is found that the entropy principles and the introduced entropy approach are rather realistic in microscopic analysis of thermodynamic systems when compared to the reviewed quantum theory.

DOI
10.21608/icmep.2014.29734

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Following an entropy approach that replaced time by entropy in Maxwell's wave equation and reviewing experimental results, it was possible to prove a unique nature of electrons as particles, a unique nature of light as waves and to end the duality confusion. Additionally, the postulate of energy quantization into quanta each of magnitude "hv " is proved as a conflict to the energy's nature as electromagnetic waves. Such conclusions led to violating main postulates of the quantum theory. Similarly, Schrodinger's equation that was introduced as a foundation of quantum mechanics to protest the duality confusions looses its meaning as the electron has a unique nature. According to the introduced entropy approach and measurement results, the photoelectric effect is found as a thermoelectric effect whose efficiency may approach the efficiency of Carnot cycle. Such conclusion violates the analysis of Shockley and Queisser that depends on the quantum approach and predicted an experimentally broken efficiency limit. As a conclusion, it is found that the entropy principles and the introduced entropy approach are rather realistic in microscopic analysis of thermodynamic systems when compared to the reviewed quantum theory.
According to a previously introduced entropy approach, it is possible to clarify the confusions of the duality concept that electrons and light may behave as waves or particles. In other words, the electron is clearly defined in this paper as a particle and the light is neatly defined as waves. Such an approach considered the flow of electric charges as a flow of ionized waves and the magnetic flux as electromagnetic waves of magnetic potential. By a similar entropy approach, the particle’s kinetic energy is defined also as electromagnetic waves. So, the electron can be defined as an energized particle whose electric charge, magnetic energy and kinetic energy are forms of electromagnetic waves. According to these definitions and similarity of the mechanisms and laws characterizing the flow of mass and energy in general, the flow of electrons can be postulated as a simultaneous flow of two energy-components; particulized energy and wave energy. Hence, the electron doesn’t have a dual nature. Rather, its behavior as a particle or as waves depends on the relative contributions of such components in the electron’s flow. Reviewing the results of de-Broglie’s experiments, it is possible to consider the flow of any particles as a simultaneous flow of waves and particles. Introducing the definition of the flow of electric charges as ionized waves, the photoelectric-effect can be postulated as an ionization process of the incident radiation during its reflection into an electric field. Similarly, the photovoltaic phenomena are postulated as a result of a photorefractive effect that may induce an electric potential into the incident radiation when crossing the electrically biased p-n junctions of photocells. Such postulates eliminate the confusing particle-property of light and prove that light has a wave-nature only. The truth of the introduced postulates is proven through finding plausible explanation of the sintering phenomena and thermoelectricity. Finally, this paper succeeded in introducing plausible explanations of results of Thompson’s experiment and other phenomena that end the confusions in defining the true nature of light and electrons as waves and particles.
According to a previously introduced entropy approach; the flow of electric charges was defined as a flow of electromagnetic waves that has an electric potential. Similarly; the magnetic flux was defined as a flow of electromagnetic waves that has a magnetic potential. By a similar entropy approach, particle's kinetic energy is defined also as electromagnetic waves. So: the electron can be defined as an energized particle whose electric charge, magnetic energy and kinetic energy are electromagnetic waves. According to such definition and to the found similarity of the mechanisms and laws of mass and energy diffusions in additions to the Einstein’s principle of mass-energy equivalence; the flow ofelectrons can be postulated as a simultaneous flow of two energy components; particulized energy and wave energy. Hence; the electron hasn’t a dual nature but its behavior as a particle or as wave depends on the relative values of its two components in each flow. Truth of the introduced postulates is proved through finding also plausible explanation of thesintering phenomena and de-Broglie hypothesis.
According to an entropy approach and by reviewing the similarity between laws characterizing the flow of heat and electric charges, electric charges were defined as electromagnetic waves that possess an electrical potential or simply as ionized photons. Accordingly, the flow of electrons was defined as a simultaneous flow of particulate energy and wave energy. Such definitions led to clear the confusions of duality properties of electrons and light waves, conflicts in the SI system of units and to explain the difference between the calculated drift speed of electrons and the speed of electricity or charges in conductors. However, Einstein considered the electron to be a negative charge of unknown nature during his analysis of the photoelectric effect. Einstein presented his hypothesis that light may behave as a particle to find a plausible explanation of the photoelectric effect. He found the measured cutoff frequency of light below which light might not eject electrons from metal-surfaces in photocells regardless of how much light is shone on the surface as a proof of truth of his hypothesis. Such frequency may be explained also, according to the previously introduced definitions, as the minimum energy quanta that may gain a quantized potential in photocells. This explanation may find plausible explanations of the found measurements of the photoelectric effects for different metal surfaces, stopping voltages into photocells and the photoelectric effect of X-rays. Einstein’s hypothesis of the photoelectric effect failed to find plausible explanations of such measurement results. According to the principles of conservation of momentum, there is a minimum quantity of photons that may lead to bouncing an atomic electron out of its orbit. So, considering Einstein’s theory as a perfect hypothesis that explains the photoelectric effect may be a misconception.
Despite its successes, quantum mechanics (QM) has remained mysterious to all who have encountered it. Starting with Bohr and progressing into the present, the departure from intuitive, physical reality has widened. The connection between QM and reality is more than just a “philosophical” issue. It reveals that QM is not a correct or complete theory of the physical world and that inescapable internal inconsistencies and incongruities arise when attempts are made to treat it as physical as opposed to a purely mathematical “tool.” Some of these issues are discussed in a review by F. Laloe [Am. J. Phys. 69, 655 (2001)]. In an attempt to provide some physical insight into atomic problems and starting with the same essential physics as Bohr of e moving in the Coulombic field of the proton and the wave equation as modified by Schrodinger, a classical approach is explored that yields a remarkably accurate model and provides insight into physics on the atomic level. The proverbial view, deeply seated in the wave-particle duality notion, that there is no large-scale physical counterpart to the nature of the electron may not be correct. Physical laws and intuition may be restored when dealing with the wave equation and quantummechanical problems. Specifically, a theory of classical quantum mechanics (CQM) is derived from first principles that successfully applies physical laws on all scales. Rather than using the postulated Schrodinger boundary condition “Ψ → 0 as r → ∞,” which leads to a purely mathematical model of the electron, the constraint is based on experimental observation. Using Maxwell’s equations, the classical wave equation is solved with the constraint that the bound (n = 1)state electron cannot radiate energy. By further application of Maxwell’s equations to electromagnetic and gravitational fields at particle production, the Schwarzschild metric is derived from the classical wave equation, which modifies general relativity to include conservation of spacetime in addition to momentum and matter/energy. The result gives a natural relationship among Maxwell’s equations, special relativity, and general relativity. CQM holds over a scale of spacetime of 85 orders of magnitude — it correctly predicts the nature of the universe from the scale of the quarks to that of the cosmos. A review is given by G. Landvogt [Internat. J. Hydrogen Energy 28, 1155 (2003)].
The wave-particle duality for light has been well established by various experiments, such as Young’s double slit experiment and the photoelectric effect. This led de Broglie to propose that a particle also has wave characteristics. Schrödinger further established the wave equation for a moving particle. Many times, quantum mechanics textbooks do not show how Schrödinger’s equation was developed in an intuitive manner that is appropriate at the undergraduate level. This article presents a new approach for introducing Schrödinger’s equation. This new approach starts with Maxwell’s equations and then applies the quantized energy of a light wave and special relativity. This more intuitive approach should help undergraduate students understand the origin of Schrödinger’s equation in a more natural way.
The photoelectric effect, the Compton effects, and now anticorrelation experiments have been claimed to prove that light consists of particles flying through a void. However the particle model is decisively falsified by the known wave qualities of electromagnetic radiation. Quantum Electrodynamics also uses spreading wave amplitudes; not flying particles. The evidence indicates that light is a wave and electrons are electromagnetic wave-structures that absorb and emit light in discrete wave-packets. These wave-quanta are emitted directionally and then spread in space in proportion to their wavelength. Their waves superposition with all other waves in space. In low intensity experiments, the waves that an electron in a photodetector absorbs come from the superpositioning of the source wave-quanta and background radiation. The importance of background radiation is evidenced by "dark counts". Treating electrons and the quanta they absorb and emit as particles when they are composed of waves is the source of all the paradoxes, unreality and confusion in Quantum Mechanics. The word "photon" should be replaced by "quantum" in the description of this particular electronic process. The conceptual model presented here explains the known phenomena without producing paradoxes and unifies quantum and classical electromagnetics.