The critical and correct scientific analysis of the generally accepted theory of the external photoelectric effect is proposed. The methodological basis for the analysis is the unity of formal logic and of rational dialectics. It is shown that Einstein’s formulation of the law of the photoelectric effect is not free from the following objection. The terms of Einstein’s formula characterize the quantitative determinacy (i.e., energy) which belongs and is related to the different material objects: “photon”, “electron in metal”, and “electron not in metal”. This signifies that Einstein’s formula represents violation of the formal-logical laws of identity and absence (lack) of contradiction. The correct mathematical formulation of the law of the external photoelectric effect within the framework of the system approach is proposed. The correct formulation represents the proportion by relative increments of the energy of the incident photon and the energy of the emitted electron. The proportion describes the linear relationship between the energy of the incident photon and the energy of the emitted electron.
The critical and correct scientific analysis of the generally accepted theory of the external photoelectric effect is proposed. The methodological basis for the analysis is the unity of formal logic and of rational dialectics. It is shown that Einstein’s formulation of the law of the photoelectric effect is not free from the following objection. The terms of Einstein’s formula characterize the quantitative determinacy (i.e., energy) which belongs and is related to the different material objects: “photon”, “electron in metal”, and “electron not in metal”. This signifies that Einstein’s formula represents violation of the formal-logical laws of identity and absence (lack) of contradiction. The correct mathematical formulation of the law of the external photoelectric effect within the framework of the system approach is proposed. The correct formulation represents the proportion by relative increments of the energy of the incident photon and the energy of the emitted electron. The proportion describes the linear relationship between the energy of the incident photon and the energy of the emitted electron.
Startling findings concerning the Planck‟s quantum equation, E = hv, have been brought to light in this work. It has been conclusively proven that the conceptual correctness of this quantum equation cannot be justified by any physical reasoning, and that there have emerged a newly formulated but promising quantum equation, P = bv, which relates the power „P‟ of a quantum oscillator, such as a photon, with its frequency „v‟ (where ‘b’is the elementary quantum of energy observable in nature), to be the right kind of quantum equation. Since the core concept in the Einstein‟s theory of the photoelectric effect is critically dependent on the correctness of the Planck‟s quantum equation, bringing about an appropriate modification in the Einstein‟s derivation of the photoelectric effect has been deemed essential. Reformulation of the Einstein‟s photoelectric equation has been carried out in this work taking into consideration the newly emerged quantum perspective as well as the concept of energy-power dichotomy that photons and photoelectrons do exhibit. Thus, the Einstein‟s photoelectric equation expressed in all energy terms, Ee = hv h v0, is get converted into all power terms, Pe = bv bv0. This modified form of the Einstein‟s photoelectric equation has been found to be capable of providing satisfactory explanation to all the salient features the photoelectric effect exhibits.
According to an entropy approach and by reviewing the similarity between laws characterizing the flow of heat and electric charges, electric charges were defined as electromagnetic waves that possess an electrical potential or simply as ionized photons. Accordingly, the flow of electrons was defined as a simultaneous flow of particulate energy and wave energy. Such definitions led to clear the confusions of duality properties of electrons and light waves, conflicts in the SI system of units and to explain the difference between the calculated drift speed of electrons and the speed of electricity or charges in conductors. However, Einstein considered the electron to be a negative charge of unknown nature during his analysis of the photoelectric effect. Einstein presented his hypothesis that light may behave as a particle to find a plausible explanation of the photoelectric effect. He found the measured cutoff frequency of light below which light might not eject electrons from metal-surfaces in photocells regardless of how much light is shone on the surface as a proof of truth of his hypothesis. Such frequency may be explained also, according to the previously introduced definitions, as the minimum energy quanta that may gain a quantized potential in photocells. This explanation may find plausible explanations of the found measurements of the photoelectric effects for different metal surfaces, stopping voltages into photocells and the photoelectric effect of X-rays. Einstein’s hypothesis of the photoelectric effect failed to find plausible explanations of such measurement results. According to the principles of conservation of momentum, there is a minimum quantity of photons that may lead to bouncing an atomic electron out of its orbit. So, considering Einstein’s theory as a perfect hypothesis that explains the photoelectric effect may be a misconception.
The two opposite concepts - multiphoton and effective photon - readily describing the photoelectric effect under strong irradiation in the case that the energy of the incident light is essentially smaller than the ionisation potential of gas atoms and the work function of the metal are treated. Based on the submicroscopic construction of quantum mechanics developed in the previous papers by the author [Phys. Essays vol. 6, 554 (1993); vol. 10, 407 (1997)] the analysis of the reasons of the two concepts discrepancies is led. Taking into account the main hypothesis of those works, i.e., that the electron is an extended object that is not point-like, the study of the interaction between the electron and a photon flux is carried out in detail. A comparison with numerous experiments is performed.
In the prior work on this topic orbiting electrons in steady state are viewed as doublets which are laid out in strings in such a way that they do not radiate, even though they would if they existed alone.In this second paper a detailed description of the radiation process is given, as well as an analysis of the properties of the emitted photons.These are shown to be single electric field corpuscles which therefore have no frequency.The theory leads to an equation for the photoelectric effect which is a modification of the Einstein/Planck law.Though the modification can and does happen, it is conjectured this is generally not the case.The theory also leads to a resolution of the wave-particle paradox and a proof of the law of radii.A byproduct of the study is that quantum theory and entanglement are shown to be invalid, as well as Einstein's view that his law also applies to Maxwell radiation.
A relation is derived between the probability distribution of the integrated intensity of light incident on a photoelectric detector and that of the emission of n photoelectrons in a time interval (t, t + T) from the properties of a quantized electromagnetic field. Both the direct and the inverse relations are derived, thereby enabling the statistical properties of light to be determined from photoelectric measurements. An explicit expression is given for the coefficients for calculating the moments ( W k) by means of the moments (n J) (] = 1, 2 ..... k). The correctness of the operations in which generalized functions occur is confirmed by some direct calculations. The significance of photoelectric detectors has been increasing of late. Since their response is proportional to the intensity of incident light (to the square of the amplitude of light) (more exactly, to the local mean time value of the intensity), one speaks of quadratic detectors. These detectors are of basic importance in the theory of the coherence of the electromagnetic field, since if we place N such detectors into N different points in space and if we lead the outputs of these detectors to the correlator we can measure the correlation (coherence) effects of the 2N-th order in the given field [1]. Such correlation measurements provide information on the energy distribution in the radiation spectrum [2], the angular dimensions of stars [3], and the state of polarization [4] and also enable the phase of physically important functions (e.g. the scattering amplitudes) [5] to be determined. Although in such experiments the properties of photoelectrons are studied rather than of photons, they reflect the basic properties of photons. Let the probability distribution Of the emission of n photoelectrons in a time interval (t, t + T) be p(n, T, t) - p(n) and let the probability distribution of the quantity W(T, t) = W = J'tt+r I(t') dr', where I(t) is the intensity of linearly polarized light incident on the photodetector (for simplicity we assume that the sensitivity of the photocathode is a = 1), be P(W). The quantity W can be regarded as a classical characteristic of the field, the quantity n represents the quantum characteristic of the field. Then, on the basis of such a semi-classical description, in which the field is described classically, but its interaction is described quantum-wise, one can derive the following relation [6]