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Physics World

A quantum renaissance

Markus Aspelmeyer, Anton Zeilinger

Published Jul 1, 2008• 28 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Pure curiosity has been the driving force behind many groundbreaking experiments in physics. This is no better illustrated than in quantum mechanics, initially the physics of the extremely small. Since its beginnings in the 1920s and 1930s, researchers have wanted to observe the counterintuitive properties of quantum mechanics directly in the laboratory. However, because experimental technology was not sufficiently developed at the time, people like Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger relied instead on "gedankenexperiments" (thought experiments) to investigate the quantum physics of individual particles, mainly electrons and photons.

DOI
10.1088/2058-7058/21/07/34

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Pure curiosity has been the driving force behind many groundbreaking experiments in physics. This is no better illustrated than in quantum mechanics, initially the physics of the extremely small. Since its beginnings in the 1920s and 1930s, researchers have wanted to observe the counterintuitive properties of quantum mechanics directly in the laboratory. However, because experimental technology was not sufficiently developed at the time, people like Niels Bohr, Albert Einstein, Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger relied instead on "gedankenexperiments" (thought experiments) to investigate the quantum physics of individual particles, mainly electrons and photons.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, it became clear that microscopic particles do not obey Newton's laws of classical mechanics. The idea of light quanta was at odds with the established wisdom that light is a wave phenomenon, of course, but no other explanation of the photoelectric effect seemed possible. The next step in the development of quantum mechanics was taken by Niels Bohr, who introduced postulates about the discreteness of the energy of the bound electrons in an atom similar to the discreteness of the energy of light quanta. Modern quantum mechanics was founded by Werner Heisenberg, Max Born, Erwin Schroedinger, Paul Adrian Maurice Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli, Enrico Fermi, and others. In quantum mechanics, it is in general fundamentally impossible to determine the exact outcome of an experiment; one can only determine the probability of any given outcome.
This book gives a detailed study of the development and the interpretation given to Niels Bohr's Principle of Correspondence. It also describes the role that this principle played in guiding Bohr's research over the critical period from 1920 to 1927. Quantum mechanics, developed in the 1920s and 1930s by Bohr, Heisenberg, Born, Schrödinger and Dirac, represents one of the most profound turning points in science. This theory required a wholly new kind of physics in which many of the principles, concepts and models representing reality, that had formed the basis of classical physics since Galileo and Newton, had to be abandoned. This book re-examines the birth of quantum mechanics, in particular examining the development of crucial and original insights of Niels Bohr.
Fundamental aspects of quantum mechanics, which were discussed only theoretically as "thought experiments" in the 1920s and 1930s, have begun to frequently show up in nanoscopic regions owing to recent rapid progress in advanced technologies. Quantum phenomena were once regarded as the ultimate factors limiting further miniaturization trends of microstructured electronic devices, but now they have begun to be actively used as the principles for new devices such as quantum computers. To directly observe what had been unobservable quantum phenomena, we have tried to develop bright and monochromatic electron beams for the last 35 years. Every time the brightness of an electron beam improved, fundamental experiments in quantum mechanics became possible, and quantum phenomena became observable by using the wave nature of electrons.
Toward the end of the nineteenth century, it became clear that some experiments cannot be explained on the basis of known physics, now referred to as classical physics. In 1900, Max Planck was able to correctly describe the distribution of blackbody radiation energy as a function of wavelength λ or frequency ν = c/λ. He had to accept the existence of energy packets (quanta) with energy E = hν. A few years later, Albert Einstein found that this unexpected relation between energy and frequency is also necessary in order to understand photoemission from metallic surfaces. A decade later, Niels Bohr arrived at the correct equation for the electronic spectrum of the hydrogen atom by applying “quantum conditions” on the motion of the electron around the nucleus and the Planck’s relation E = hν on the energy difference between the energy levels (1916). A decade later, Heisenberg, Born, and Jordan introduced “quantum mechanics” and de Broglie and Schrödinger (1925-1926) introduced “wave mechanics.”
In the beginning of the twentieth century, there occurred a surge in both the experimental data acquired and the theories proposed to explain the sometimes “unexpected” data. With the formulation of the Special Theory of Relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905, the “quantum hypothesis” by Planck in 1900, and the development of quantum theory in the 1920s and 1930s, modern physics was created. This veritable explosion of data and theory led to an entirely new and different perception of the laws of nature and the way physical systems behave.