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Applied Optics

Absolute efficiency and time-response measurement of single-photon detectors

Paul G. Kwiat, Aephraim M. Steinberg, R. Y. Chiao, Philippe H. Eberhard, Michael D. Petroff

Published Apr 1, 1994• 89 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Using correlated photons from spontaneous parametric downconversion, we have measured both the absolute quantum efficiencies and the time responses of four single-photon detectors. Efficiencies as high as (76.4 ± 2.3)% (at 702 nm) were seen, which to our knowledge are the highest reported single-photon detection efficiencies. An auxiliary retroreflection mirror was found to increase the net detection efficiency by as much as a factor of 1.19. The narrowest time profile for coincidences between two detectors displays a peak with 300 ps FWHM. We also investigated the presence of afterpulses and the effects of saturation and varying device parameters.

DOI
10.1364/ao.33.001844

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Using correlated photons from spontaneous parametric downconversion, we have measured both the absolute quantum efficiencies and the time responses of four single-photon detectors. Efficiencies as high as (76.4 ± 2.3)% (at 702 nm) were seen, which to our knowledge are the highest reported single-photon detection efficiencies. An auxiliary retroreflection mirror was found to increase the net detection efficiency by as much as a factor of 1.19. The narrowest time profile for coincidences between two detectors displays a peak with 300 ps FWHM. We also investigated the presence of afterpulses and the effects of saturation and varying device parameters.
Using correlated photon pairs produced via spontaneous parametric down-conversion, we have measured the absolute single-photon detection efficiencies and time responses of four detectors: two solid-state photomultipliers (SSPM's) manufactured by Rockwell International Corp., and two custom-modified single-photon counting modules (SSPM's) manufactured by EG, Canada. The highest observed efficiencies were 70.9\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}1.9% (with an SSPM, at a wavelength of 632 nm) and 76.4\ifmmode\pm\else\textpm\fi{}2.3% (with an SPCM, at 702 nm). We believe these to be the highest reported single-photon detection efficiencies in the visible spectrum; they are important for quantum cryptography and loophole-free tests of Bell's inequalities, as well as more prosaic applications such as photon correlation spectroscopy and velocimetry. We found that the time profile for coincidences between the SSPM and the SPCM consisted of a main peak with a 3.5-ns full width at half maximum (FWHM) preceded by a smaller peak by 11 ns. A similar time profile between two SPCM's displayed only one peak, with a 300-ps FWHM. Afterpulses were detected in the SPCM's at a level of less than ${10}^{\mathrm{\ensuremath{-}}4}$ of the counting rate, with an exponential decay time constant of 4.5 \ensuremath{\mu}s.
Single-photon detectors are of great importance in spectroscopy, laser ranging, astronomy and wherever weak light detection is required, so a precise knowledge of their quantum efficiency is essential, but their calibration is by no means trivial. Traditional methods need a black body radiation source or a highly attenuated laser beam as a reference standard, or an already calibrated reference detector. It is well known that absolute measurement of the quantum efficiency, absolute in the sense that the calibration is independent of any radiometric standard or the properties of another detector, can be performed using entangled twin photons generated in optical spontaneous parametric down-conversion together with a reference detector. We have performed the first proof-of-principle experiment to determine the quantum efficiency by which no second detector or reference standard is required. This absolute self-calibration method is also based on the time correlation of photons emitted in parametric down-conversion, but with the introduction of a suitable time delay between the arrival times of the twin photons. Furthermore, we describe a scheme for absolute self-calibration of the quantum efficiency at different wavelengths by means of a pulsed source of nondegenerate down-converted photons. This method should have even greater potential for applications.
Single-photon detectors are finding increasingly wide application in all branches of science and technology thus a precise knowledge of their quantum efficiency is an essential prerequisite. We have performed the first proof-of-principle demonstration of a means to determine the quantum efficiency by which no second detector or reference standard is required. This absolute self-calibration method is based on the time correlation of entangled photons pairs emitted in spontaneous parametric down conversion. The measured quantum efficiency of a Si avalanche photodiode single-photon detector agrees well with the product specifications.
Single-photon detectors are of great importance in spectroscopy, laser ranging, astronomy and wherever weak light detection is required, so a precise knowledge of their quantum efficiency is essential, but their calibration is by no means trivial. Traditional methods need a black body radiation source or a highly attenuated laser beam as a reference standard, or an already calibrated reference detector. It is well known that absolute measurement of the quantum efficiency, absolute in the sense that the calibration is independent of any radiometric standard or the properties of another detector, can be performed using entangled twin photons generated in optical spontaneous parametric down-conversion together with a reference detector. We have performed the first proof-of-principle experiment to determine the quantum efficiency by which no second detector or reference standard is required. This absolute self-calibration method is also based on the time correlation of photons emitted in parametric down-conversion, but with the introduction of a suitable time delay between the arrival times of the twin photons. Furthermore, we describe a scheme for absolute self-calibration of the quantum efficiency at different wavelengths by means of a pulsed source of nondegenerate down-converted photons. This method should have even greater potential for applications.
An absolute self-calibration method is proposed for determining the quantum efficiency of a single photon detector which does not require any standard referenc e or a second detector. The method is based on the time correlation of photon pa irs generated in parametric downconversion. A beam of frequency downconverted ph otons is split at a polarizing beamsplitter then recombined at a second beamspli tter, but with a time delay introduced between them so that the two photons of a n original pair enter the detector one by one. The photoelectric pulses from the detector are split into three paths; a compensating delay is introduced into tw o of the paths so that the two signals arrive simultaneously at a coincidence co unter; the third path goes directly to a photon counter. From the ratio of the r eadings of the two counters we can derive the quantum efficiency of the detector . Two methods are given, one for continuous wave lasers and another for high rep etition rate pulsed lasers.
Recent active development of quantum computers and quantum key distribution systems requires characterization of the parameters of single-photon detectors. A key parameter of single-photon detectors is detection efficiency. One of the methods for measuring the detection efficiency given in the international ETSI standard is the Klyshko reference-free method based on the use of the effect of spontaneous parametric downconversion. The signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of this method depends on a combination of the pump wavelength, the nonlinear crystal axis angle, and the type of detector sensitive element. When the combination is complex, one has to deal with low SNR. In this case, to obtain a high SNR, long-term signal accumulation is necessary. In real detectors, the situation is complicated by the presence of a high noise level at low frequencies. The heterodyning-based method we have proposed consists in introducing modulation into the standard Klyshko scheme and accumulating the signal at a higher frequency. The method was numerically modeled and experimentally tested. A 14 times improvement in SNR was demonstrated compared to simple signal accumulation.