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Journal of Modern Optics

High-rate quantum key distribution at short wavelength: Performance analysis and evaluation of silicon single photon avalanche diodes

Massimo Ghioni, Andrea Giudice, S. Cova, Franco Zappa

Published Sep 1, 2003• 24 citations
Publisher

Abstract

Experimental results obtained with silicon single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) in quantum key distribution (QKD) at short wavelengths reveal remarkable potential for application in local area networks (LAN) and for free-space transmission at high rate. Actual application prospects, however, depend on the performance level and on the suitability of practical systems using the available silicon SPAD devices. They can be essentially divided in two groups: planar p-n junction structures with a thin depletion layer (typically 1 μm); and reach-through structures with a thick depletion layer (from 20 μm to 150μm). The physical mechanisms that control the device behaviour were investigated and the effect on the key parameters of the detector (quantum detection efficiency, dark counting rate, afterpulsing probability and photon-timing jitter) were thoroughly assessed. A quantitative analysis was made of the influence of such parameters on the quantum bit error rate (QBER). Actual parameters were measured and the attainable performance and system suitability of the two device types evaluated. Comparable performance is obtained, but from a system viewpoint thin SPADs appear inherently better suited to high-rate QKD applications, because of their faster response time, ruggedness, low voltage, low power dissipation and fabrication technology, which is simple, efficient, economical and compatible with monolithic integration of detector and associated circuits.

DOI
10.1080/09500340308234577

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Experimental results obtained with silicon single photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) in quantum key distribution (QKD) at short wavelengths reveal remarkable potential for application in local area networks (LAN) and for free-space transmission at high rate. Actual application prospects, however, depend on the performance level and on the suitability of practical systems using the available silicon SPAD devices. They can be essentially divided in two groups: planar p-n junction structures with a thin depletion layer (typically 1 μm); and reach-through structures with a thick depletion layer (from 20 μm to 150μm). The physical mechanisms that control the device behaviour were investigated and the effect on the key parameters of the detector (quantum detection efficiency, dark counting rate, afterpulsing probability and photon-timing jitter) were thoroughly assessed. A quantitative analysis was made of the influence of such parameters on the quantum bit error rate (QBER). Actual parameters were measured and the attainable performance and system suitability of the two device types evaluated. Comparable performance is obtained, but from a system viewpoint thin SPADs appear inherently better suited to high-rate QKD applications, because of their faster response time, ruggedness, low voltage, low power dissipation and fabrication technology, which is simple, efficient, economical and compatible with monolithic integration of detector and associated circuits.
The application of quantum key distribution (QKD) has raised particular demands for single-photon detectors. One of the most promising candidates at the low-loss optical fibre communications windows is the planar geometry InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche diode. These detectors have been modelled, fabricated and characterised at 1.55 µm wavelength. Their performance in terms of single-photon detection efficiency, dark count rate, timing jitter and afterpulsing behaviour are reported and compared with the best commercially available, linear multiplication avalanche photodiodes operated in Geiger-mode. Their use in the application of QKD is discussed.
The implementation and commercialization of quantum cryptography technologies have to face some challenges related to the development of single-photon detectors operating at 1550 nm. The main requirements are: i) high detection efficiency; ii) low noise; iii) high count rate; iv) low timing jitter. Different technologies are currently available for single-photon detection at 1550 nm, but semiconductor devices (like Single-Photon Avalanche Diode, SPAD) offer a photon detection efficiency that is inherently higher than any photocathode employed in vacuum tube detectors. Additionally InGaAs/InP SPADs can detect single photons at 1550 nm with low noise when moderately cooled by means of thermo-electric coolers. Consequently, InGaAs/InP SPAD can be the enabling technology of practical quantum key distribution (QKD) systems, provided that the maximum count rate is increased above 1 Mcps. The main limit is the afterpulsing effect that usually sets too long (< 10 μs) a hold-off time after each avalanche ignition. We present the developments achieved in InGaAs/InP SPAD device design, fabrication technology and front-end electronics, aimed at decreasing the afterpulsing effect, while not impairing photon detection efficiency and timing jitter. The new InGaAs/InP SPADs provide count rates higher than 1 Mcps and temporal response with 60 ps Full-Width at Half Maximum and very short (30 ps time constant) tail. The front-end electronics includes a wide-band pulse generator able to gate the SPAD up to 133 MHz repetition rate. Eventually, a fast avalanche-quenching scheme minimizes quenching time to less than 1 ns, thus effectively reducing afterpulsing by decreasing the total charge flowing through the junction.
InGaAs/InP single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) are widely used in practical applications requiring near-infrared photon counting such as quantum key distribution (QKD). Photon detection efficiency and dark count rate are the intrinsic parameters of InGaAs/InP SPADs, due to the fact that their performances cannot be improved using different quenching electronics given the same operation conditions. After modeling these parameters and developing a simulation platform for InGaAs/InP SPADs, we investigate the semiconductor structure design and optimization. The parameters of photon detection efficiency and dark count rate highly depend on the variables of absorption layer thickness, multiplication layer thickness, excess bias voltage, and temperature. By evaluating the decoy-state QKD performance, the variables for SPAD design and operation can be globally optimized. Such optimization from the perspective of specific applications can provide an effective approach to design high-performance InGaAs/InP SPADs.
Single-photon detection concept is the most crucial factor that determines the performance of quantum key distribution (QKD) systems. In this paper, a simulator with time domain visualizers and configurable parameters using continuous time simulation approach is presented for modeling and investigating the performance of single-photon detectors operating in Gieger mode at the wavelength of 830 nm. The widely used C30921S silicon avalanche photodiode was modeled in terms of avalanche pulse, the effect of experiment conditions such as excess voltage, temperature and average photon number on the photon detection efficiency, dark count rate and afterpulse probability. This work shows a general repeatable modeling process for significant performance evaluation. The most remarkable result emerged from the simulated data generated and detected by commercial devices is that the modeling process provides guidance for single-photon detectors design and characterization. The validation and testing results of the single-photon avalanche detectors (SPAD) simulator showed acceptable results with the theoretical and experimental results reported in related references and the device's data sheets.
We have developed a hybrid single photon detection scheme for telecom wavelengths based on nonlinear sum-frequency generation and silicon single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs). The SPAD devices employed have been designed to have very narrow temporal response, i.e. low jitter ∼40 ps, which we can exploit for increasing the allowable bit rate for quantum key distribution. The wavelength conversion is obtained using periodically poled lithium niobate waveguides (W/Gs). The inherently high efficiency of these W/Gs allows us to use a continuous wave laser to seed the nonlinear conversion so as to have a continuous detection scheme. We also present a 1.27 GHz qubit repetition rate, one-way phase encoding, quantum key distribution experiment operating at telecom wavelengths that takes advantage of this detection scheme. The proof-of-principle experiment shows a system capable of MHz raw count rates with a QBER less than 2% and estimated secure key rates greater than 100 kbit s −1 over 25 km.
We developed a SPAD detector implementing an array structure to achieve short deadtime and high detection efficiency, to be employed in ground-based optical receivers for enhancing key rates in Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) channels at 800 nm. The device detects over 2 billion photons per second, thus enabling transmission rates beyond 2 GHz. The detector features two 8 × 8 SPAD arrays, named Trial A and Trial B, sharing 4 outputs. Trial A combines its 64 SPADs’ outputs in an OR-tree connected to a frequency divider, distributing the pulses to the 4 outputs. Trial B has 4 independent quadrants, each with its own OR-tree feeding a toggle flip-flop and connected to a single output. A pulse shrinker reduces the pile-up effect. The detector exhibits a Photon Detection Efficiency (PDE) of 39.6% at 800 nm, a median Dark Count Rate (DCR) of 300 cps/pixel, afterpulsing probability below 0.1% and a 230 ps Full-Width at Half-Maximum (FWHM) jitter per SPAD.