Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Log inSign up
Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Blog
Job Board
Q3AS

© 2026 Aqora Quantum S.A.S.

TermsPrivacyLegal Notice

Optics Letters

Coupled two-quantum-transition probability for laser photons and microwave plasmons

J. Hildebrandt

Published Nov 1, 1985• 4 citations
Publisher

Abstract

The introduction of a plasmon-state vector analogous to a photon-field oscillator allows, within the rotating-wave approximation, transformation to a time-independent interaction Hamiltonian, so that Fermi's golden rule can be applied to the two-quantum transition. Although the existence of a vector potential is necessary for the oscillator state vectors, only the multipolar Hamiltonian need be used for the off-resonant frequencies.

DOI
10.1364/ol.10.000541

Related papers

Quantum transition probabilities during a perturbing pulse: Differences between the nonadiabatic results and Fermi’s golden rule forms

Anirban Mandal, Katharine L. C. Hunt

For a perturbed quantum system initially in the ground state, the coefficient ck(t) of excited state k in the time-dependent wave function separates into adiabatic and nonadiabatic terms. The adiabatic term ak(t) accounts for the adjustment of the original ground state to form the new ground state of the instantaneous Hamiltonian H(t), by incorporating excited states of the unperturbed Hamiltonian H0 without transitions; ak(t) follows the adiabatic theorem of Born and Fock. The nonadiabatic term bk(t) describes excitation into another quantum state k; bk(t) is obtained as an integral containing the time derivative of the perturbation. The true transition probability is given by bk(t)2, as first stated by Landau and Lifshitz. In this work, we contrast bk(t)2 and ck(t)2. The latter is the norm-square of the entire excited-state coefficient which is used for the transition probability within Fermi’s golden rule. Calculations are performed for a perturbing pulse consisting of a cosine or sine wave in a Gaussian envelope. When the transition frequency ωk0 is on resonance with the frequency ω of the cosine wave, bk(t)2 and ck(t)2 rise almost monotonically to the same final value; the two are intertwined, but they are out of phase with each other. Off resonance (when ωk0 ≠ ω), bk(t)2 and ck(t)2 differ significantly during the pulse. They oscillate out of phase and reach different maxima but then fall off to equal final values after the pulse has ended, when ak(t) ≡ 0. If ωk0 < ω, bk(t)2 generally exceeds ck(t)2, while the opposite is true when ωk0 > ω. While the transition probability is rising, the midpoints between successive maxima and minima fit Gaussian functions of the form a exp[−b(t − d)2]. To our knowledge, this is the first analysis of nonadiabatic transition probabilities during a perturbing pulse.

The Journal of Chemical Physics•May 17, 2018•8 citations

Photon Exchange Between a Pair of Nonidentical Atoms with Two Forms of Interactions

Shahram Mohammad-Mehdi Golshan

A pair of nonidentical two-level atoms, separated by a fixed distance R, interact through photon exchange. The system is described by a state vector which is assumed to be a superposition of four "essential states": (1) the first atom is excited, the second one is in the ground state, and no photon is present, (2) the first atom is in its ground state, the second one is excited, and no photon is present, (3) both atoms are in their ground states and a photon is present, and (4) both atoms are excited and a photon is also present. The system is initially in state (1). The probabilities of each atom being excited are calculated for both the minimally-coupled interaction and the multipolar interaction in the electric dipole approximation. For the minimally-coupled interaction Hamiltonian, the second atom has a probability of being instantaneously excited, so the interaction is not retarded. For the multipolar interaction Hamiltonian, the second atom is not excited before the retardation time, which agrees with special relativity. For the minimally-coupled interaction the nonphysical result occurs because the unperturbed Hamiltonian is not the energy operator in the Coulomb gauge. For the multipolar Hamiltonian in the electric dipole approximation the unperturbed Hamiltonian is the energy operator. An active view of unitary transformations in nonrelativistic quantum electrodynamics is used to derive transformation laws for the potentials of the electromagnetic field and the static Coulomb potential. For a specific choice of unitary transformation the transformation laws for the potentials are used in the minimally-coupled second-quantized Hamiltonian to obtain the multipolar Hamiltonian, which is expressed in terms of the quantized electric and magnetic fields.

•May 1, 1987•0 citations

Rabi oscillations, Floquet states, Fermi's golden rule, and all that: Insights from an exactly solvable two-level model

Roberto D. Merlin

Rabi oscillations and Floquet states are likely the most familiar concepts associated with a periodically time-varying Hamiltonian. Here, we present an exactly solvable model of a two-level system coupled to both a continuum and a classical field that varies sinusoidally with time, which sheds light on the relationship between the two problems. For a field of the rotating-wave-approximation form, results show that the dynamics of the two-level system can be mapped exactly onto that for a static field, if one shifts the energy separation between the two levels by an amount equal to ℏω, where ω is the frequency of the field and ℏ is Planck's constant. This correspondence allows one to view Rabi oscillations and Floquet states from the simpler perspective of their time-independent-problem equivalents. The comparison between the rigorous results and those from perturbation theory helps clarify some of the difficulties underlying textbook proofs of Fermi's golden rule, and the discussions on quantum decay and linear response theory.

American Journal of Physics•Dec 23, 2020•30 citations

Solution of the Schrödinger Equation with a Hamiltonian Periodic in Time

J.H. Shirley

The interaction of a quantum system with an oscillating field is studied in a formalism which replaces the semiclassical time-dependent Hamiltonian with a time-independent Hamiltonian represented by an infinite matrix. The formalism is developed as a mathematical equivalent to the semiclassical treatment, and interpreted as a classical approximation to the quantum treatment of the field. Combined with a perturbation theory for two nearly degenerate states, the formalism provides a convenient method for determining resonance transition probabilities including frequency shifts and multiple quantum transitions. The theory is illustrated by a detailed study of the simple case of a two-state system excited by a strong oscillating field.

Physical Review•May 24, 1965•2,888 citations

Photons and electron-photon interactions

Prasanta Kumar Basu, Bratati Mukhopadhyay, Rikmantra Basu

Abstract The chapter first develops the wave equation in a rectangular cavity and gives the definition and number of density-of-modes within it. Prescription for converting the classical expressions of the EM field to quantized forms in terms of creation and annihilation operators is then outlined. After introducing the concept of photons, the interactions of an atomic system with photons are described in terms of the interaction Hamiltonian. The time-dependent perturbation theory, using the Fermi Golden Rule and the dipole approximation is employed to obtain expressions for the absorption and emission rates. The theory is then applied to the case of a two-level atomic system to obtain the expression for Einstein’s A-coefficient. Broadening of emission line is pointed out and the oscillator strength is defined.

•Apr 5, 2022•0 citations

Teaching Fermi's golden rule without a continuum

Benedict N Murdin, Carter Matthews

Abstract Fermi's Golden Rule is one of the most important results in quantum mechanics, predicting transition rates in applications ranging from beta decay to optical transitions, autoionization and photoionization. Most textbooks derive the Golden Rule only for the canonical case of a discrete state coupled by a time-independent perturbation to a continuum of final states. Here we present a unified treatment of several physical situations, including light absorption in atoms and solids, that all lead to the same Golden Rule expression. The essential ingredients are the transition matrix element and a spectral weighting function, whose physical origin need not be the density of final states, nor necessarily anything to do with the matter.The conventional discrete-to-continuum derivation introduces pedagogical complications associated with continuum normalization and the interpretation of the density of states. Among the cases considered here, the derivation for discrete transitions driven by a noisy perturbation is no more difficult mathematically but conceptually clearer, while leading directly to practical calculations. This suggests that it provides a more natural first introduction to the Golden Rule, with conventional continuum derivations better viewed later as another realization of the same underlying mathematical structure, rather than the other way around.

European Journal of Physics•Oct 28, 2026•0 citations
The introduction of a plasmon-state vector analogous to a photon-field oscillator allows, within the rotating-wave approximation, transformation to a time-independent interaction Hamiltonian, so that Fermi's golden rule can be applied to the two-quantum transition. Although the existence of a vector potential is necessary for the oscillator state vectors, only the multipolar Hamiltonian need be used for the off-resonant frequencies.
For a perturbed quantum system initially in the ground state, the coefficient ck(t) of excited state k in the time-dependent wave function separates into adiabatic and nonadiabatic terms. The adiabatic term ak(t) accounts for the adjustment of the original ground state to form the new ground state of the instantaneous Hamiltonian H(t), by incorporating excited states of the unperturbed Hamiltonian H0 without transitions; ak(t) follows the adiabatic theorem of Born and Fock. The nonadiabatic term bk(t) describes excitation into another quantum state k; bk(t) is obtained as an integral containing the time derivative of the perturbation. The true transition probability is given by bk(t)2, as first stated by Landau and Lifshitz. In this work, we contrast bk(t)2 and ck(t)2. The latter is the norm-square of the entire excited-state coefficient which is used for the transition probability within Fermi’s golden rule. Calculations are performed for a perturbing pulse consisting of a cosine or sine wave in a Gaussian envelope. When the transition frequency ωk0 is on resonance with the frequency ω of the cosine wave, bk(t)2 and ck(t)2 rise almost monotonically to the same final value; the two are intertwined, but they are out of phase with each other. Off resonance (when ωk0 ≠ ω), bk(t)2 and ck(t)2 differ significantly during the pulse. They oscillate out of phase and reach different maxima but then fall off to equal final values after the pulse has ended, when ak(t) ≡ 0. If ωk0 < ω, bk(t)2 generally exceeds ck(t)2, while the opposite is true when ωk0 > ω. While the transition probability is rising, the midpoints between successive maxima and minima fit Gaussian functions of the form a exp[−b(t − d)2]. To our knowledge, this is the first analysis of nonadiabatic transition probabilities during a perturbing pulse.
A pair of nonidentical two-level atoms, separated by a fixed distance R, interact through photon exchange. The system is described by a state vector which is assumed to be a superposition of four "essential states": (1) the first atom is excited, the second one is in the ground state, and no photon is present, (2) the first atom is in its ground state, the second one is excited, and no photon is present, (3) both atoms are in their ground states and a photon is present, and (4) both atoms are excited and a photon is also present. The system is initially in state (1). The probabilities of each atom being excited are calculated for both the minimally-coupled interaction and the multipolar interaction in the electric dipole approximation. For the minimally-coupled interaction Hamiltonian, the second atom has a probability of being instantaneously excited, so the interaction is not retarded. For the multipolar interaction Hamiltonian, the second atom is not excited before the retardation time, which agrees with special relativity. For the minimally-coupled interaction the nonphysical result occurs because the unperturbed Hamiltonian is not the energy operator in the Coulomb gauge. For the multipolar Hamiltonian in the electric dipole approximation the unperturbed Hamiltonian is the energy operator. An active view of unitary transformations in nonrelativistic quantum electrodynamics is used to derive transformation laws for the potentials of the electromagnetic field and the static Coulomb potential. For a specific choice of unitary transformation the transformation laws for the potentials are used in the minimally-coupled second-quantized Hamiltonian to obtain the multipolar Hamiltonian, which is expressed in terms of the quantized electric and magnetic fields.
Rabi oscillations and Floquet states are likely the most familiar concepts associated with a periodically time-varying Hamiltonian. Here, we present an exactly solvable model of a two-level system coupled to both a continuum and a classical field that varies sinusoidally with time, which sheds light on the relationship between the two problems. For a field of the rotating-wave-approximation form, results show that the dynamics of the two-level system can be mapped exactly onto that for a static field, if one shifts the energy separation between the two levels by an amount equal to ℏω, where ω is the frequency of the field and ℏ is Planck's constant. This correspondence allows one to view Rabi oscillations and Floquet states from the simpler perspective of their time-independent-problem equivalents. The comparison between the rigorous results and those from perturbation theory helps clarify some of the difficulties underlying textbook proofs of Fermi's golden rule, and the discussions on quantum decay and linear response theory.
The interaction of a quantum system with an oscillating field is studied in a formalism which replaces the semiclassical time-dependent Hamiltonian with a time-independent Hamiltonian represented by an infinite matrix. The formalism is developed as a mathematical equivalent to the semiclassical treatment, and interpreted as a classical approximation to the quantum treatment of the field. Combined with a perturbation theory for two nearly degenerate states, the formalism provides a convenient method for determining resonance transition probabilities including frequency shifts and multiple quantum transitions. The theory is illustrated by a detailed study of the simple case of a two-state system excited by a strong oscillating field.
Abstract The chapter first develops the wave equation in a rectangular cavity and gives the definition and number of density-of-modes within it. Prescription for converting the classical expressions of the EM field to quantized forms in terms of creation and annihilation operators is then outlined. After introducing the concept of photons, the interactions of an atomic system with photons are described in terms of the interaction Hamiltonian. The time-dependent perturbation theory, using the Fermi Golden Rule and the dipole approximation is employed to obtain expressions for the absorption and emission rates. The theory is then applied to the case of a two-level atomic system to obtain the expression for Einstein’s A-coefficient. Broadening of emission line is pointed out and the oscillator strength is defined.
Abstract Fermi's Golden Rule is one of the most important results in quantum mechanics, predicting transition rates in applications ranging from beta decay to optical transitions, autoionization and photoionization. Most textbooks derive the Golden Rule only for the canonical case of a discrete state coupled by a time-independent perturbation to a continuum of final states. Here we present a unified treatment of several physical situations, including light absorption in atoms and solids, that all lead to the same Golden Rule expression. The essential ingredients are the transition matrix element and a spectral weighting function, whose physical origin need not be the density of final states, nor necessarily anything to do with the matter.The conventional discrete-to-continuum derivation introduces pedagogical complications associated with continuum normalization and the interpretation of the density of states. Among the cases considered here, the derivation for discrete transitions driven by a noisy perturbation is no more difficult mathematically but conceptually clearer, while leading directly to practical calculations. This suggests that it provides a more natural first introduction to the Golden Rule, with conventional continuum derivations better viewed later as another realization of the same underlying mathematical structure, rather than the other way around.