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Proceedings of SPIE, the International Society for Optical Engineering/Proceedings of SPIE

Near-IR photon number resolving detector design

Jan Bogdanski, Elanor H. Huntington

Published May 29, 2013• 1 citation
Publisher

Abstract

Photon-Number-Resolving-Detection (PNRD) capability is crucial for many Quantum-Information (QI) applications, e.g. for Coherent-State-Quantum-Computing, Linear-Optics-Quantum-Computing. In Quantum-Key-Distribution and Quantum-Secret-Sharing over 1310/1550 nm fiber, two other important, defense and information security related, QI applications, it’s crucial for the information transmission security to guarantee that the information carriers (photons) are single. Thus a PNRD can provide an additional security level against eavesdropping. Currently, there are at least a couple of promising PNRD technologies in the Near-Infrared, but all of them require cryogenic cooling. Thus a compact, portable PNRD, based on commercial Avalanche-Photo-Diodes (APDs), could be a very useful instrument for many QI experiments. For an APD-based PNRD, it is crucial to measure the APD-current in the beginning of the avalanche. Thus an efficient cancellation of the APD capacitive spikes is a necessary condition for the very weak APD current measurement. The detector’s principle is based on two commercial, pair-matched InGaAs/InP APDs, connected in series. It leads to a great cancelation of the capacitive spikes caused by the narrow (300 ps), differential gate-pulses of maximum 4V amplitude assuming that both pulses are perfectly matched in regards to their phases, amplitudes, and shapes. The cancellation scheme could be used for other APD-technologies, e.g. Silicon, extending the detection spectrum from visible to NIR. The design distinguishes itself from other, APD-based, schemes by its scalability feature and its computer controlled cancellation of the capacitive spikes. Furthermore, both APDs could be equally used for the detection purpose, which opens a possibility for the odd-even photon number parity detection.

DOI
10.1117/12.2014501

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Modeling and design of a single photon detector and its various characteristics are presented. It is a type of avalanche photo diode (APD) designed to suit the requirements of a Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) detection system. The device is modeled to operate in a gated mode at liquid nitrogen temperature for minimum noise and maximum gain. Different types of APDs are compared for best performance. The APD is part of an optical communication link, which is a private channel to transmit the key signal. The encrypted message is sent via a public channel. The optical link operates at a wavelength of 1.55μm. The design is based on InGaAs with a quantum efficiency of more than 75% and a multiplication factor of 1000. The calculated dark current is below 10-12A with an overall signal to noise ratio better than 18 dB. The device sensitivity is better than -40 dBm, which is more than an order of magnitude higher than the dark current, corresponding to a detection sensitivity of two photons in pico-second pulses.
In any quantum communication system, such as a quantum key distribution (QKD) system, data rates are mainly limited by the system clock rate and the various link losses. While the transmission clock rate is limited by the temporal resolution of the single-photon detectors, losses in a fiber-based quantum communication system can be minimized by operating in the near infrared range (NIR), at 1310 nm or 1550 nm. Commercially available InGaAs-based avalanche photo-diodes (APDs) can be operated as single-photon detectors in this wavelength range [Hadfield, 2009]. Due to the severe after-pulsing, InGaAs APDs are typically used in a gated mode and this can limit their application in high-speed quantum communications systems. Superconducting single-photon detectors (SSPDs) can work in the NIR wavelength range with good performance [Gol’tsman et al. 2001; Hadfield, 2009]. However, SSPDs require cryogenic temperatures, and are not widely available on the commercial market at present. In addition, InGaAs/InP based photomultiplier tubes (PMT) can operate in the NIR range, but its performance is limited by very low detection efficiency (1 % at 1600 nm) and large timing jitter (1.5 ns) [Hamamatsu, 2005]. Microchannel plates (MCP) are micro-capillary electron multipliers coated with an electron-emissive material and multiply photon-excited electrons from a photon cathode [Wiza, 1979]. MCPs usually have faster rise times and lower timing jitter than is achievable with PMTs. InGaAs MCPs can work in the NIR range. These MCPs, but are limited by low detection efficiency (~1 %) [Martin, J. & Hink P. 2003]. On the other hand, silicon based avalanche photo-diodes (Si APDs) are compact, relatively inexpensive, and can be operated at ambient temperatures with high detection efficiency and low noise in the visible or near-visible range. Unfortunately they do not work at wavelengths longer than 1000 nm. For those wavelengths, an up-conversion technique has been developed that uses sum-frequency generation (SFG) in a non-linear optical medium to convert the signal photons to a higher frequency (shorter wavelength) in the visible or near visible range. The up-converted photons can then be detected by a Si APD. Up-conversion detectors use commercially available components and devices, and are a practical solution for many applications in quantum communications. To date, several groups have successfully developed highly efficient up-conversion single-photon detectors in the nearinfrared range using periodically poled lithium niobate (PPLN) waveguides [Diamanti et al., 2005; Langrock et al., 2005; Thew et al., 2006; Tanzilli et al., 2005; Xu et al., 2007;] and bulk crystals [Vandevender & Kwiat, 2004].
A photon number resolving detector (PNRD) is a device providing a different output depending on the number of incident photons in the single or few photons regime. This tool is crucial in several applications such as quantum communication, boson sampling, photon sources characterization and so on. PNRD are not new players in ultraviolet or visible wavelengths, but superconducting nanostrips provide a performing counterpart also in the near-infrared, where the aforementioned applications would like to operate. In this work we present a comprehensive description of the operation of an eight-pixel PNRD at the telecom wavelength of 1550 nm.
We present the latest results on two kinds of photon detectors: single photon detectors (SPDs) and photon number resolving detector (PNRD). We developed high speed and low noise SPDs using superconducting nano-wire (abbreviated by SNSPD) and semiconductor (InGaAs) avalanche photodiode (APD). The SNSPD system has totally four channels all of which have the detection eciency higher than 16% at 100Hz dark count rate. The InGaAs APD system also has four channels and the best performance is represented by the after-pulse probability of 0.61%, the dark count probability of 0.71×10-6 (~1kHz), and the detection eciency of 10.9%. Both systems were applied to wavelength division multiplexing quantum key distribution (WDM-QKD) operated at 1.2GHz repetition rate in a eld environment. The PNRD is made of superconducting transition edge sensor. It was applied to the implementation of quantum receiver which could beat the homodyne limit of the bit error rate of binary coherent states. We discuss future perspective of quantum communications with those photon detection technologies, including multi-user QKD networks and low-power high capacity communications.
The implementation and commercialization of quantum cryptography technologies have to face some challenges related to the development of single-photon detectors operating at 1550 nm. The main requirements are: i) high detection efficiency; ii) low noise; iii) high count rate; iv) low timing jitter. Different technologies are currently available for single-photon detection at 1550 nm, but semiconductor devices (like Single-Photon Avalanche Diode, SPAD) offer a photon detection efficiency that is inherently higher than any photocathode employed in vacuum tube detectors. Additionally InGaAs/InP SPADs can detect single photons at 1550 nm with low noise when moderately cooled by means of thermo-electric coolers. Consequently, InGaAs/InP SPAD can be the enabling technology of practical quantum key distribution (QKD) systems, provided that the maximum count rate is increased above 1 Mcps. The main limit is the afterpulsing effect that usually sets too long (< 10 μs) a hold-off time after each avalanche ignition. We present the developments achieved in InGaAs/InP SPAD device design, fabrication technology and front-end electronics, aimed at decreasing the afterpulsing effect, while not impairing photon detection efficiency and timing jitter. The new InGaAs/InP SPADs provide count rates higher than 1 Mcps and temporal response with 60 ps Full-Width at Half Maximum and very short (30 ps time constant) tail. The front-end electronics includes a wide-band pulse generator able to gate the SPAD up to 133 MHz repetition rate. Eventually, a fast avalanche-quenching scheme minimizes quenching time to less than 1 ns, thus effectively reducing afterpulsing by decreasing the total charge flowing through the junction.
A novel photon-number-resolving detector (PNRD) structure, based on an array of nanowire superconducting single photon detectors (SSPDs) connected in series, have recently been proposed. With this configuration, it is possible to scale to large photon numbers. In this framework, PNRDs capable of resolving up to four, eight and twelve photons at telecommunication wavelengths have been fabricated and tested. The photon-induced voltage signals from all the series elements are summed up into a single readout pulse with a height proportional to the detected photon number. Analysis of the linearity shows the potential of scaling to an even larger dynamic range.