Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Log inSign up
Challenges
Datasets
Workspaces
Papers
Discussions
Leaderboard
Blog
Job Board
Q3AS

© 2026 Aqora Quantum S.A.S.

TermsPrivacyLegal Notice

Applied Physics Letters

An ultrafast quantum random number generator with provably bounded output bias based on photon arrival time measurements

Michael Wahl, Matthias Leifgen, Michael Berlin, Tino Röhlicke, Hans-Jürgen Rahn, Oliver J. Benson

Published Apr 25, 2011• 197 citations
Publisher

Abstract

We report the implementation of a quantum random number generator based on photon arrival times. Due to fast and high resolution timing we are able to generate the highest bitrate of any current generator based on photon arrival times. Bias in the raw data due to the exponential distribution of the arrival times is removed by postprocessing which is directly integrated in the field programmable logic of the timing electronics.

DOI
10.1063/1.3578456

Related papers

Practical and fast quantum random number generation based on photon arrival time relative to external reference

You-Qi Nie, Hong-Fei Zhang, Zhen Zhang +4 more

We present a practical high-speed quantum random number generator, where the timing of single-photon detection relative to an external time reference is measured as the raw data. The bias of the raw data can be substantially reduced compared with the previous realizations. The raw random bit rate of our generator can reach 109 Mbps. We develop a model for the generator and evaluate the min-entropy of the raw data. Toeplitz matrix hashing is applied for randomness extraction, after which the final random bits are able to pass the standard randomness tests.

arXiv:1401.2594•Applied Physics Letters•Feb 3, 2014•132 citations

Addendum: “An ultrafast quantum random number generator with provably bounded output bias based on photon arrival time measurements” [Appl. Phys. Lett. 98, 171105 (2011)]

Michael Wahl, Matthias Leifgen, Michael Berlin +3 more

An ultrafast quantum random number generator with provably bounded output bias based on photon arrival time measurements Articles You May Be Interested InAn ultrafast quantum random number generator with provably bounded output bias based on photon arrival time measurements Appl.Phys.Lett.(April 2011) 6 Gbps real-time optical quantum random number generator based on vacuum fluctuation

Applied Physics Letters•Oct 8, 2012•8 citations

A Bias-Free Quantum Random Number Generation Using Photon Arrival Time Selectively

Jian-min Wang, Tianyu Xie, Hongfei Zhang +3 more

We present a high-quality bias-free quantum random number generator (QRNG) using photon arrival time selectively, in accordance with the number of photon detection events within a sampling time interval in attenuated light. It is well shown in both theoretical analysis and experimental verification that this random number production method eliminates both bias and correlation perfectly without more postprocessing and that the random number can clearly pass the standard randomness tests. We fulfill theoretical analysis and experimental verification of the method whose rate can reach up to 45 Mb/s.

arXiv:1412.0171•IEEE photonics journal•Feb 10, 2015•295 citations

Programmable quantum random number generator without postprocessing

Lac Nguyen, Patrick Rehain, Yong Meng Sua +1 more

We demonstrate a viable source of unbiased quantum random numbers whose statistical properties can be arbitrarily programmed without the need for any postprocessing such as randomness distillation or distribution transformation. It is based on measuring the arrival time of single photons in shaped temporal modes that are tailored with an electro-optical modulator. We show that quantum random numbers can be created directly in customized probability distributions and pass all randomness tests of the NIST and Dieharder test suites without any randomness extraction. The min-entropies of such generated random numbers are measured close to the theoretical limits, indicating their near-ideal statistics and ultrahigh purity. Easy to implement and arbitrarily programmable, this technique can find versatile uses in a multitude of data analysis areas.

Optics Letters•Feb 2, 2018•15 citations

Experimental demonstration of high-entropy time of arrival based optical QRNG qualifying stringent statistical tests

Anindita Banerjee, Anuj Sethia, Vijayalaxmi Mogiligidda +4 more

We report a demonstration of a high-entropy optical quantum random number generator (QRNG) based on photon arrival time. We have implemented the scheme with high-speed and high-precision electronics with a time resolution of 1 ps generating 115 Mbps raw data. The random bit generation efficiency is 8 bits per detection. The experimental data is quite consistent with theoretical estimation showing minimum bias. We apply a real-time information-theoretic randomness extractor to generate a final data rate of 109 Mbps. The randomness is rigorously evaluated against well-known statistical test suites of NIST, ENT, Diehard, TU-01 and Dieharder.

arXiv:2108.06112•Aug 13, 2021•2 citations

Unpredictable and uniform random number generation based on time of arrival using InGaAs detectors

Deepika Aggarwal, A. Banerjee, Ankush Kumar Sharma +1 more

Quantum random number generators are becoming mandatory in a demanding technological world of high-performing learning algorithms and security guidelines. Our implementation, based on the principles of quantum mechanics, enables us to achieve the required randomness. We have generated high-quality quantum random numbers from a weak coherent source at the telecommunication wavelength. The entropy is based on the time of arrival of quantum states within a predefined time interval. The detection of photons by the InGaAs single-photon detectors and high-precision time measurement of 5 ps enables us to generate 16 random bits per arrival time, which is the highest reported to date. We have presented the theoretical analysis and experimental verification of the random number generation methodology. The method eliminates the requirement of any randomness extractor, thereby leveraging the principles of quantum physics to generate random numbers. The output data rate averages 2.4 Mbps. The generated raw quantum random numbers are compared with the NIST-prescribed Blum-Blum-Shub pseudo-random number generator and an in-house-built hardware random number generator from FPGA, on the ENT and NIST platform.

Nanosystems Physics Chemistry Mathematics•Nov 5, 2025•0 citations
We report the implementation of a quantum random number generator based on photon arrival times. Due to fast and high resolution timing we are able to generate the highest bitrate of any current generator based on photon arrival times. Bias in the raw data due to the exponential distribution of the arrival times is removed by postprocessing which is directly integrated in the field programmable logic of the timing electronics.
We present a practical high-speed quantum random number generator, where the timing of single-photon detection relative to an external time reference is measured as the raw data. The bias of the raw data can be substantially reduced compared with the previous realizations. The raw random bit rate of our generator can reach 109 Mbps. We develop a model for the generator and evaluate the min-entropy of the raw data. Toeplitz matrix hashing is applied for randomness extraction, after which the final random bits are able to pass the standard randomness tests.
We present a high-quality bias-free quantum random number generator (QRNG) using photon arrival time selectively, in accordance with the number of photon detection events within a sampling time interval in attenuated light. It is well shown in both theoretical analysis and experimental verification that this random number production method eliminates both bias and correlation perfectly without more postprocessing and that the random number can clearly pass the standard randomness tests. We fulfill theoretical analysis and experimental verification of the method whose rate can reach up to 45 Mb/s.
We demonstrate a viable source of unbiased quantum random numbers whose statistical properties can be arbitrarily programmed without the need for any postprocessing such as randomness distillation or distribution transformation. It is based on measuring the arrival time of single photons in shaped temporal modes that are tailored with an electro-optical modulator. We show that quantum random numbers can be created directly in customized probability distributions and pass all randomness tests of the NIST and Dieharder test suites without any randomness extraction. The min-entropies of such generated random numbers are measured close to the theoretical limits, indicating their near-ideal statistics and ultrahigh purity. Easy to implement and arbitrarily programmable, this technique can find versatile uses in a multitude of data analysis areas.
We report a demonstration of a high-entropy optical quantum random number generator (QRNG) based on photon arrival time. We have implemented the scheme with high-speed and high-precision electronics with a time resolution of 1 ps generating 115 Mbps raw data. The random bit generation efficiency is 8 bits per detection. The experimental data is quite consistent with theoretical estimation showing minimum bias. We apply a real-time information-theoretic randomness extractor to generate a final data rate of 109 Mbps. The randomness is rigorously evaluated against well-known statistical test suites of NIST, ENT, Diehard, TU-01 and Dieharder.
Quantum random number generators are becoming mandatory in a demanding technological world of high-performing learning algorithms and security guidelines. Our implementation, based on the principles of quantum mechanics, enables us to achieve the required randomness. We have generated high-quality quantum random numbers from a weak coherent source at the telecommunication wavelength. The entropy is based on the time of arrival of quantum states within a predefined time interval. The detection of photons by the InGaAs single-photon detectors and high-precision time measurement of 5 ps enables us to generate 16 random bits per arrival time, which is the highest reported to date. We have presented the theoretical analysis and experimental verification of the random number generation methodology. The method eliminates the requirement of any randomness extractor, thereby leveraging the principles of quantum physics to generate random numbers. The output data rate averages 2.4 Mbps. The generated raw quantum random numbers are compared with the NIST-prescribed Blum-Blum-Shub pseudo-random number generator and an in-house-built hardware random number generator from FPGA, on the ENT and NIST platform.