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arXiv:2604.14511

Performance Analysis and Optimization for Laser-Phase-Noise based Quantum Random Number Generation

Jinlu Liu, Jie Yang, Yu Gao, Guowei Zhang, Yan Pan, Heng Wang, Yuyang Ding, Yang Li, Wei Huang, Bingjie Xu, Wei Chen

quant-phSubmitted Apr 16, 2026• Announced Apr 17, 2026• 0 citations• Revised Jul 4, 2026 (v2)
v1 · Apr 16, 2026v2 · Jul 4, 2026
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Abstract

The quantum random number generation based on laser phase noise, which is featured with high random number generation rate and ease for photonic integration, has been extensively investigated and demonstrated. Despite these advancements, a theoretical model to achieve optimal performance in terms of maximizing the random number generation rate is still incomplete. In this work, a comprehensive physical model for this scheme is introduced to accurately predict the power spectrum of entropy source and probability distribution of raw data, based on which the entropy source bandwidth and extractable randomness can be accordingly estimated and thus the system performance can be quantitatively evaluated and optimized. The model is sufficiently validated through both simulation and experiment with significant agreement under various typical setups. Furthermore, our proposal enables the proactive design of experimental parameters to achieve optimal system performance, which is crucial for the design and practical implementation of photonics integrated quantum random number generations.

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The quantum random number generation based on laser phase noise, which is featured with high random number generation rate and ease for photonic integration, has been extensively investigated and demonstrated. Despite these advancements, a theoretical model to achieve optimal performance in terms of maximizing the random number generation rate is still incomplete. In this work, a comprehensive physical model for this scheme is introduced to accurately predict the power spectrum of entropy source and probability distribution of raw data, based on which the entropy source bandwidth and extractable randomness can be accordingly estimated and thus the system performance can be quantitatively evaluated and optimized. The model is sufficiently validated through both simulation and experiment with significant agreement under various typical setups. Furthermore, our proposal enables the proactive design of experimental parameters to achieve optimal system performance, which is crucial for the design and practical implementation of photonics integrated quantum random number generations.
Quantum random number generators are essential for achieving information-theoretical security in modern cryptographic systems. Among various implementations, laser phase noise schemes are widely favored for their simple architecture and high integration potential. However, the intrinsic correlations in the raw data are often neglected, which violates the independent and identically distributed assumption and potentially compromises system security. In this work, we establish an analytical model of correlation and formulate an analytical expression for the conditional min-entropy in the presence of intrinsic correlations to accurately quantify the genuinely extractable randomness. The validity of our theoretical model is confirmed by numerical simulations and experimental results, exhibiting excellent agreement. Under typical setups it is shown that neglecting intrinsic correlations leads to an overestimation of extractable randomness by approximately 46%. This work provides a valuable theoretical framework for designing compact, high-performance quantum random number generators with rigorous security analysis.
Quantum random number generators allow for access of a truly unpredictable random sequence. A popular scheme is based on the laser phase noise, which, however, is generally limited in speed and implementation complexity, especially for chip integration. In this work, a general physical model based on the Wiener process for such schemes is introduced, through which the limitation on generation speed is clearly explained and comprehensive optimization is achieved. We present an insight to exploit the potential frequency band of a quantum entropy source with a simple filtering method and experimentally boost the bandwidth to 20 GHz, where an ultra-fast generation rate of 156 Gbps is demonstrated. Our proposal significantly enhances the ceiling speed of such schemes without requiring extra complex hardware, thus effectively benefiting the corresponding chip integration with high performance and low implementation cost, paving the way for its large-scale applications. Quantum random number generators based on laser phase noise provide access to truly unpredictable sequences, but the speed and implementation complexity have posed significant challenges, particularly for chip-scale integration. To address these limitations, this work introduces a general physical model based on the Wiener process to clearly explain the performance bottleneck for such a scheme and presents a simple filtering method to significantly boost the bandwidth of the quantum entropy source, achieving an ultra-fast generation rate of 156 Gbps.
While operating a quantum random-number generator (QRNG), it is extremely useful to have a model of the physical entropy source to guarantee that the device is delivering randomness of genuine quantum origin. In this work we consider a QRNG based on a gain-switched laser diode and we develop a model to quantify its phase noise. This model is based on the laser rate equations and the state-of-the-art techniques for the characterization of laser diodes used in lightwave systems. These tools let us achieve a faithful modeling of the phase noise and we verify its accuracy through comparisons with experimental measurements. Furthermore, the model can be used to select optimal parameters to maximize the QRNG performance and monitor the device behavior to detect malfunctioning or malicious tampering of the device.
Random Number Generators (RNGs) are crucial for applications ranging from cryptography to simulations. Depending on the source of randomness, RNGs are classified into Pseudo-Random Number Generators (PRNGs), True Random Number Generators (TRNGs), and Quantum Random Number Generators (QRNGs). This work presents the end-to-end development of a high-speed, high-efficiency, phase-noise-based QRNG system that taps into the quantum phase noise of a single-frequency laser, with randomness originating from spontaneous emission. Using a self-heterodyne measurement with a semiconductor laser (linewidth ≈\approx≈ 5.23 GHzGHzGHz) operated near threshold and a $\sim$48 cmcmcm fiber delay line, a raw data generation rate of 2.0 GbpsGbpsGbps is achieved. To ensure uniform randomness in the QRNG output, robust extraction techniques developed in-house, such as the Toeplitz Strong Extractor (TSE), are used. Randomness validation using the NIST and Diehard test suites confirms that all statistical tests pass at standard confidence levels. The developed system achieves a post-processed generation rate of 1.0 GbpsGbpsGbps in operation and attains a Technology Readiness Level (TRL) of 7, approaching TRL 8, making it suitable for real-time secure applications such as cryptographic key generation and stochastic modeling.
Quantum technologies provide many applications for information processing tasks that are impossible to realize within classical physics. These capabilities include such fundamental resources as generating secure, i.e., private and unpredictable random values. Yet, the problem of quantifying the amount of generated randomness is still not fully solved. This work presents a comprehensive analysis of the design and performance optimization of a quantum random number generator (QRNG) based on Bell inequality violations. We investigate key protocol parameters, including the smoothing parameter ( ϵ s ), test round probability ( γ ), and switching delays, and their effects on the generation rate and quality of randomness. We identify optimal ranges for γ and p Ω (the protocol’s nonaborting probability) to balance the trade-off between randomness consumption and net randomness generation. We investigate the impact of the laser power on the overall generation rate. We explore the impact of switching delays on the system’s performance, providing strategies to mitigate these effects. The work provides practical guidelines for the efficient and secure design of QRNG systems and other cryptographic protocols.
Quantum random number generator (QRNG) utilizes the intrinsic randomness of quantum systems to generate completely unpredictable and genuine random numbers, finding wide applications across many fields. QRNGs relying on the phase noise of a laser have attracted considerable attention due to their straightforward system architecture and high random number generation rates. However, traditional phase noise QRNGs suffer from a 50% loss of quantum entropy during the randomness extraction process. In this paper, we propose a phase-reconstruction quantum random number generation scheme, in which the phase noise of a laser is reconstructed by simultaneously measuring the orthogonal quadratures of the light field using balanced detectors. This enables direct discretization of uniform phase noise, and the min-entropy can achieve a value of 1. Furthermore, our approach exhibits inherent robustness against the classical phase fluctuations of the unbalanced interferometer, eliminating the need for active compensation. Finally, we conducted experimental validation using commercial optical hybrid and balanced detectors, achieving a random number generation rate of 1.96 Gbps at a sampling rate of 200 MSa/s.