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arXiv:2602.14601

The road of quantum entanglement: from Einstein to 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics

Yu Shi

physics.hist-phhep-phquant-phSubmitted Feb 16, 2026• Announced Feb 17, 2026• 0 citations
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Abstract

We explain the achievements that were awarded 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics, as well as the preceding and the later developments. The main notions and historic cornerstones of Bell inequalities, the related researches on quantum entanglement are reviewed, and the key physical ideas are emphasized. Among the early work, C. S. Wu's contributions using polarization-entangled photons from electron-positron annihilation are introduced.

Comments
22 pages. This review article is the English version of a Chinese article published in Chinese Journal of Nature 44(6), 455-466 (2022) [ DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.0253-9608.2022.06.005], which was based on a talk the author gave at 2022 Fall Meeting of Chinese Physical Society (the video is available at https://www.koushare.com/video/details/173010)

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We explain the achievements that were awarded 2022 Nobel Prize in Physics, as well as the preceding and the later developments. The main notions and historic cornerstones of Bell inequalities, the related researches on quantum entanglement are reviewed, and the key physical ideas are emphasized. Among the early work, C. S. Wu's contributions using polarization-entangled photons from electron-positron annihilation are introduced.
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2022 was awarded to three experiment physicists: Alain Aspect, John F. Clauser and Anton Zeilinger, for their contributions to “experiments with entangled photons, establishing the violation of Bell inequalities and pioneering quantum information science”. In this paper, the history, basics, and applications related with the Bell inequalities are reviewed. The discussion of fundamental issues on quantum mechanics dated back to the year 1927 when the fifth Solvay conference was held, highlighting intense arguments between Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr. At the time, Einstein expressed, publicly for the first time, his critical attitude towards quantum mechanics. While the arguments did not reach a decisive conclusion, Bohr’s probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics, the Copenhagen interpretation, had since been well circulated among the community. Einstein’s arguments with Bohr lasted many years after the conference. The arguably most famous one was the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox, proposed in a 1935 paper written by the three authors. They stated, by flawless reasoning, that quantum mechanics is ‘incomplete’. Bohr replied immediately. So did Erwin Schrödinger, who, in particular, coined the term ‘entangled’ for the first time to describe the bizarre quantum mechanical property. Nevertheless, the EPR paper received few citations at its publication, until 1990’s when quantum information science started blossoming. From today’s perspective, the paper resembles the ‘sleeping beauty’ who slumbered for decades before fully awakening. It has been widely accepted that it was John S. Bell who eventually resolved the EPR paradox. But many important figures before him should not go unnoticed, including John A. Wheeler, Chien-Shiung Wu, David Bohm, to name a few. In 1964, Bell wrote down a mathematical inequality which satisfies local hidden variable theory but which can be violated in quantum mechanics. The significance is that Bell’s inequality brings the rather philosophic debates on the EPR paradox down to be experimentally testable. Hence, an experiment is here appealing, as is the case in all fields of physics. To the end, John F. Clauser, alongside Stuart J. Freedman, conducted an experiment in 1972 to test a Bell inequality, the Bell-Clauser-Horne-Shimony-Holt (CHSH) inequality, proposed by him and his collaborators in 1969. The results, however, leaves loopholes open. One of the loopholes was closed in a later experiment led by Alain Aspect in 1982. The Bell-CHSH inequality was later tested under a much stricter condition by Anton Zeilinger’s team. Two most important loopholes were both closed by three teams in 2015 independently. Zeilinger’s team was among them. Almost all experiments to date have confirmed quantum mechanical predictions. Zeilinger’s team also performed the first teleportation of unknown quantum states, the first entanglement swapping, along with other contributions pioneering the quantum information science. In retrospect, the foundational study of quantum theory has been developed over a century. It once drew much of quantum physics founders’ attention, went virtually unnoticed while other physical fields advanced, had for quite a while been considered to have very weak relationship with major physics, and finally revived in recent decades leading to rapid progress in quantum information science and quantum technology. We believe that the Nobel Prize in Physics this year is not only an award and recognition to past achievements, but also heralds a new era of science in future.
This paper opens with a foundational exploration of basic concepts essential for understanding the Nobel Prize experiments. Next, some critical concepts directly related to the Nobel Prize will be introduced. We then delve into the recent Nobel Prize-awarded research. The heart of the discussion examines these groundbreaking experiments. The focus will be the process and the conclusion it made. Transitioning to practical applications, the focus shifts to how quantum entanglement is applied to quantum computation. The final part of this paper will be the conclusion and some predictions of the development of quantum physics.
The ideas and results that are in the background of the 2022 Nobel Prize in physics had an immense impact on our understanding of reality. Therefore, it is crucial that these implications reach also the general public, not only the scientists in the related fi elds of quantum mechanics. The purpose of this review is to attempt to elucidate these revolutionary changes in our worldview that were eventually acknowledged also by the Nobel’s committee, and to do it with very few references to mathematical details (which could be even ignored without undermining the take-away essence of the text). We fi rst look into the foundational disputes between Einstein and Bohr about the nature of quantum mechanics, which culminated in the so-called EPR paradox – the main impetus for all the research that would ensue in this context. Next, we try to explain the statement of the famous Bell’s theorem – the theorem that relocated the Einstein-Bohr discussions from the realm of philosophy and metaphysics to hard-core physics verifi able by experiments (we also give a brief derivation of the theorem’s proof). Then we overview the experimental work of 2022 year’s Nobel laureates, which had the fi nal say about who was right in the debate. The outcome of these experiments forced us to profoundly revise our understanding of the universe.
Albert Einstein was one of the key architects of the Quantum Mechanics theory. His Theory of Relativity was a deterministic one. In 1927, Werner Heisenberg proposed his Uncertainty Principle, a key piece of quantum theory, which was indeterministic. With this, indeterminism was introduced to the scientific world. Einstein protested Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle, and in 1935, to defend determinism, Einstein published a thought experiment: the famous EPR (Einstein Podolsky Rosen) theory along with Nathan Rosen and Boris Podolsky. In 1964, John Stuart Bell intensively reviewed the EPR theory. To verify the correctness of EPR theory, he proposed another thought experiment which would need a mechanical set up. In 1967, Carl Kocher first performed a mechanical experiment to verify Bell's theory. Subsequently, John Clauser and Alain Aspect made several modifications of Carl Kocher's experiment and did not find any hidden variables, which substantiated Bell’s theory. In 1993, C.H. Bennett and his team proposed the theoretical Quantum Teleportation concept. Indeed, in 1997, through experiment, Popescu and his team, and Zeilinger and his team independently proved that quantum teleportation is possible. In 2022, for their contribution to quantum mechanics, John Clauser, Alain Aspect, and Anton Zeilinger were ararded the Nobel Prize in physics.