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arXiv:2512.19637

Quantum Imaging of Birefringent Samples using Hong-Ou-Mandel Interference

Carolina Gonçalves, Tiago D. Ferreira, Catarina S. Monteiro, Nuno A. Silva

quant-phphysics.opticsSubmitted Dec 22, 2025• Announced Dec 23, 2025• 0 citations
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Abstract

Two-photon interference in a Hong-Ou-Mandel (HOM) interferometer can be used as a quantum sensing mechanism due to the sensitivity of the interference dip to perturbations of the photon indistinguishability. In particular, recent works have generalized this concept to microscopy setups, but the sensitivity to optical path differences constrains its application to samples with thickness variation typically below a few micrometers if tracking changes in the coincidences at a fixed delay. Extending the concept to polarization microscopy and circumventing this limitation, this manuscript explores the use of a narrowband photon pair source with coherence length >1 mm to broaden the HOM dip. Thus, realistic sample-thickness variations introduce negligible temporal distinguishability, and changes in coincidence rate at the dip centre are then dominated by sample-induced polarization effects. To compute the polarization rotation, we develop a statistical model for the interferometer, derive the Fisher information, and establish a maximum-likelihood estimator for the local fast-axis angle. Recording dip and baseline frames at each sample position via raster scanning, the experimental results validate the framework, agreeing with classical polarized-intensity images while demonstrating operation at a maximum-precision regime and insensitiveness to layer thickness. Overall, the approach enclosed provides a quantum-based quantitative imaging of birefringent structures, which can motivate further advantageous applications, including enhanced signal-to-noise ratio and lower damage imaging of photosensitive samples.

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Two-photon interference in a Hong-Ou-Mandel (HOM) interferometer can be used as a quantum sensing mechanism due to the sensitivity of the interference dip to perturbations of the photon indistinguishability. In particular, recent works have generalized this concept to microscopy setups, but the sensitivity to optical path differences constrains its application to samples with thickness variation typically below a few micrometers if tracking changes in the coincidences at a fixed delay. Extending the concept to polarization microscopy and circumventing this limitation, this manuscript explores the use of a narrowband photon pair source with coherence length >1 mm to broaden the HOM dip. Thus, realistic sample-thickness variations introduce negligible temporal distinguishability, and changes in coincidence rate at the dip centre are then dominated by sample-induced polarization effects. To compute the polarization rotation, we develop a statistical model for the interferometer, derive the Fisher information, and establish a maximum-likelihood estimator for the local fast-axis angle. Recording dip and baseline frames at each sample position via raster scanning, the experimental results validate the framework, agreeing with classical polarized-intensity images while demonstrating operation at a maximum-precision regime and insensitiveness to layer thickness. Overall, the approach enclosed provides a quantum-based quantitative imaging of birefringent structures, which can motivate further advantageous applications, including enhanced signal-to-noise ratio and lower damage imaging of photosensitive samples.
Two-photon interference in a Hong–Ou–Mandel (HOM) interferometer can be used as a quantum sensing mechanism due to the sensitivity of the interference dip to perturbations of the photon indistinguishability. In particular, recent studies have generalized this concept to microscopy setups, but the sensitivity to optical path differences constrains its application to samples with thickness variation typically below a few micrometers if tracking changes in the coincidences at a fixed delay. Extending the concept to polarization microscopy and circumventing this limitation, this manuscript explores the use of a narrowband photon pair source with coherence length >1 mm to broaden the HOM dip. Thus, realistic sample-thickness variations introduce negligible temporal distinguishability, and changes in coincidence rate at the dip center are then dominated by sample-induced polarization effects. To compute the polarization rotation, we develop a statistical model for the interferometer, derive the Fisher information, and establish a maximum-likelihood estimator for the local fast-axis angle. Recording dip and baseline frames at each sample position via raster scanning, the experimental results validate the framework, agreeing with classical polarized-intensity images while demonstrating operation close to the maximum-precision regime allowed by the statistical model and insensitivity to layer thickness. Overall, this proof-of-concept demonstrates thickness-insensitive quantum mapping of the local fast-axis angle, which may motivate future developments toward more comprehensive birefringence characterization and low-damage imaging of photosensitive samples, while the present proof-of-concept focuses on the half-wave-like regime, where the local fast-axis angle can be estimated with a single-parameter model.
Hong-Ou-Mandel (HOM) interference, i.e. the bunching of indistinguishable photons at a beam splitter is a staple of quantum optics and lies at the heart of many quantum sensing approaches and recent optical quantum computers. Although originally proposed as a method for sensing micron-scale variations in photon propagation path lengths and despite the detection of photon bunching using camera technologies, the technique is still to be extended to the imaging domain. We report a full-field, scan-free, quantum imaging technique that exploits HOM interference to reconstruct the surface depth profile of transparent samples. We measure both the bunched and anti-bunched photon-pair distributions at the HOM interferometer output which are combined to provide a lower-noise image of the sample. This approach demonstrates the possibility of HOM microscopy as a tool for label-free imaging of transparent samples in the very low photon regime.
We present a projection-free method for mapping two-dimensional polarization distributions using Hong-Ou -Mandel (HOM) interference. Conventional polarization characterization techniques, such as Stokes polarimetry, rely on sequential intensity measurements under multiple polarization projections, making their accuracy and sensitivity susceptible to the extinction ratio, calibration errors, and stability of the polarization analysis optics. Our approach overcomes these limitations by exploiting the sensitivity of two-photon bunching to polarization indistinguishability at a balanced beam splitter. Using a HOM interferometer driven by a high-brightness spontaneous parametric down-conversion photon-pair source at 810 nm, we introduced a birefringent vortex waveplate with spatially varying polarization rotations in one interferometer arm and measured the resulting coincidence counts with a high signal-to-noise ratio, enabling projection-free characterization of the sample-induced polarization transformations. This configuration maps spatially dependent polarization variations directly onto coincidence counts, providing a projection-free reconstruction of the polarization distribution. We demonstrate high-fidelity ($\sim959595\%$) reconstruction of the spatial polarization pattern with an angular resolution of approximately ∼0.4∘\sim0.4^\circ∼0.4∘. The use an estimator that saturates the Cramer-Rao bound, computed from the Fisher information, can improve resolution further at the cost of longer acquisition. The proposed quantum-optical technique offers a simple, scalable, and high-precision framework for characterizing structured polarization fields in birefringent materials.
Quantum technologies have been widely recognized as unprecedented opportunities for ultra-high precision metrology. As a celebrated example in modern quantum optics, the Hong-Ou-Mandel (HOM) interferometer is well-known for enabling temporal resolutions on the attosecond scale. However, the relatively low Fisher information per trial in ordinary HOM measurements typically necessitates tens of thousands of repetitions to achieve such precision. Here, we propose and demonstrate a sample-half-inserted HOM (SHOM) interferometer, which enhances the Fisher information by five orders of magnitude in a single interference event. By introducing an asymmetric photon-sample interaction, the SHOM configuration produces a distinctive dip-bump-dip interference structure, converting what was previously viewed as an artifact into a helpful metrological resource. Experimentally, we measured the optical path difference with an average precision of 4.09 nm (13.63 as) and an average accuracy of 1.22 nm (4.07 as) using O(107)O(10^7)O(107) photons. Our results establish SHOM interferometry as an efficient phase-insensitive approach, not only paving the way toward practical quantum-enhanced thickness measurement for transparent materials, but also serving as an elegant strategy to improve the performance of various quantum devices.
Quantum interference forces two indistinguishable input photons to depart a beamsplitter in the same (of two possible) spatial output modes; this is known as the Hong-Ou-Mandel (HOM) effect. It provides a quantitative way of measuring the distinguishability between two photons and also has been utilised to determine their relative temporal delays [1, 2]. HOM interferometry offers numerous advantages over its classical counterpart, most importantly it lacks any dependence on the phase of the photons and therefore can potentially provide reliable measurements in environments where the phase is unstable. To date there have been very few investigations on the precision that is achievable with HOM interferometry. Experiments with collinear geometries have yielded sensitivities as low as 0.1fs however these approaches are limited to measurements of birefringence and other polarisation dependent effects [3, 4], as the precision derives from the inherently stable shared path of the photon pairs. Typical non-shared path HOM interferometers exhibit resolution of roughly 1–3 fs (0.3–1 μm).
The use of quantum properties of light has allowed researchers to create technologies that can outperform classical setups. In quantum imaging and sensing, the cross-correlation of photon pairs enables precise time synchronization of photons reaching the photodetectors, effectively suppressing environmental noise, and improving measurement accuracy. Building on this concept, we theoretically introduce and experimentally explore phase-dependent Hong-Ou-Mandel (HOM) interferometry. This technique employs phase-shifted indistinguishable photon pairs in a modified HOM interferometer for detection of microwave signals. We demonstrate that applying a phase shift to photon pairs via electro-optic modulation in the modified HOM interferometer causes a change in the middle interference structure, which can be used to gain information about the microwave signal causing the phase shift. In this work, we explore the quantization of the electromagnetic field, as well as nonclassical states of light. Phase estimation and metrics in quantum metrology are explored to gain insight into the benefits of utilizing these nonclassical states. An understanding of optical interferometry is built by investigating different types of interferometers, before introducing the HOM interferometer. Theory for the modified HOM interferometer is introduced, followed by an exploration of the interference structure that arises from the different path lengths in the modified system. We gathered data experimentally, showing the addition of a phase through electro-optic modulators (EOMs) leads to a change in the height of the structure. From this data, we calculate the Fisher information (FI), and find a maximum sensitivity of 58 mradians for phase difference, and 25 mV for amplitude. Additionally, we theoretically explore the FI to find optimal parameters to increase the system's sensitivity.