Quantum communication is emerging as a foundation for next-generation networks, offering unprecedented capabilities in security, entanglement-based connectivity, and distributed computation. However, the classical Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, designed for deterministic, error-tolerant systems, is incompatible with quantum phenomena such as decoherence, probabilistic entanglement, and the no-cloning theorem. This paper surveys and redefines the OSI model for quantum networking in the context of 7G systems. We propose a Quantum-Converged OSI stack by extending the classical seven-layer model with two additional layers: (i) Layer 0, the Quantum Substrate, responsible for entanglement management, coherence preservation, and teleportation; and (ii) Layer 8, the Cognitive Intent Plane, which enables AI- and QML-driven orchestration. The survey synthesizes over 150 research works published between 2018 and 2025, classifying them by OSI layer, enabling technologies (e.g., Quantum Key Distribution, Quantum Error Correction, and Post-Quantum Cryptography), and application domains such as satellite quantum links, quantum IoT, and federated edge systems. We further provide a taxonomy of cross-layer enablers and discuss simulation tools, including NetSquid, QuNetSim, and QuISP. Finally, an evaluation framework with quantum-native metrics, such as entropy throughput, coherence latency, and entanglement fidelity, is introduced, along with open challenges for programmable stacks, digital twins, and AI-defined quantum agents. The specific and novel contribution of this work is a Quantum-Converged OSI stack that extends the classical seven-layer model with two additional layers: Layer 0, the Quantum Substrate, responsible for entanglement management, coherence preservation, and teleportation; and Layer 8, the Cognitive Intent Plane, which enables AI- and QML-driven orchestration. Unlike prior technology-centric surveys, the proposed framework classifies over 150 research works by OSI layer, maps enabling technologies (QKD, QEC, PQC) and application domains (satellite quantum links, quantum IoT, federated edge systems) to their functional layers, and introduces a quantum-native evaluation framework based on entropy throughput, coherence latency, and entanglement fidelity. This layer-resolved synthesis, together with the formal definition of cross-layer quantum-native metrics, constitutes the principal novelty distinguishing this survey from existing quantum-networking reviews.
Quantum communication is emerging as a foundation for next-generation networks, offering unprecedented capabilities in security, entanglement-based connectivity, and distributed computation. However, the classical Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, designed for deterministic, error-tolerant systems, is incompatible with quantum phenomena such as decoherence, probabilistic entanglement, and the no-cloning theorem. This paper surveys and redefines the OSI model for quantum networking in the context of 7G systems. We propose a Quantum-Converged OSI stack by extending the classical seven-layer model with two additional layers: (i) Layer 0, the Quantum Substrate, responsible for entanglement management, coherence preservation, and teleportation; and (ii) Layer 8, the Cognitive Intent Plane, which enables AI- and QML-driven orchestration. The survey synthesizes over 150 research works published between 2018 and 2025, classifying them by OSI layer, enabling technologies (e.g., Quantum Key Distribution, Quantum Error Correction, and Post-Quantum Cryptography), and application domains such as satellite quantum links, quantum IoT, and federated edge systems. We further provide a taxonomy of cross-layer enablers and discuss simulation tools, including NetSquid, QuNetSim, and QuISP. Finally, an evaluation framework with quantum-native metrics, such as entropy throughput, coherence latency, and entanglement fidelity, is introduced, along with open challenges for programmable stacks, digital twins, and AI-defined quantum agents. The specific and novel contribution of this work is a Quantum-Converged OSI stack that extends the classical seven-layer model with two additional layers: Layer 0, the Quantum Substrate, responsible for entanglement management, coherence preservation, and teleportation; and Layer 8, the Cognitive Intent Plane, which enables AI- and QML-driven orchestration. Unlike prior technology-centric surveys, the proposed framework classifies over 150 research works by OSI layer, maps enabling technologies (QKD, QEC, PQC) and application domains (satellite quantum links, quantum IoT, federated edge systems) to their functional layers, and introduces a quantum-native evaluation framework based on entropy throughput, coherence latency, and entanglement fidelity. This layer-resolved synthesis, together with the formal definition of cross-layer quantum-native metrics, constitutes the principal novelty distinguishing this survey from existing quantum-networking reviews.
The rapid evolution of communication networks, driven by the expansion of heterogeneous environments such as 6G, Internet of Things (IoT), and edge computing, has exposed a critical research gap in the lack of unified frameworks that jointly address intelligent network control and quantum-resilient security. Existing networking protocols were originally designed under static configurations and classical security assumptions, making them increasingly inadequate for dynamic, large-scale, and intelligent infrastructures exposed to quantum-enabled threats. At the same time, the emergence of Quantum Computing (QC) introduces severe security risks, as widely used cryptographic mechanisms supporting protocols such as Transport Layer Security (TLS) and Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) become vulnerable to quantum attacks. This paper presents a structured survey based on a systematic classification of recent literature across AI-enabled networking, Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC), Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), and protocol-level integration approaches. The review categorizes existing works into AI-driven network optimization, quantum-resilient security mechanisms, and hybrid AI–QRC architectural frameworks, enabling a unified comparison of design strategies and deployment models. Furthermore, this survey analyzes how Artificial Intelligence (AI) techniques enable autonomous network operations while Quantum-Resilient Cryptography (QRC) approaches provide post-quantum security guarantees, highlighting their complementary roles in next-generation network design. The study further synthesizes key findings for a tightly coupled AI–QRC co-design, which remains an open challenge due to mismatched assumptions in control latency, cryptographic overhead, and protocol adaptability. Additionally, this review emphasizes the need for integrated frameworks that combine intelligence and quantum security to develop adaptive, scalable, and resilient network protocols for the post-quantum era.
Quantum communication and information technologies are poised to transform secure data transmission, distributed quantum computing, and scalable networking by leveraging fundamental principles such as superposition, entanglement, and the no-cloning theorem. This survey presents a structured overview of the quantum information processing (QIP) landscape, spanning theoretical foundations to system-level architectures. We cover quantum states, unitary evolution, gates, and channels, leading to the mathematical framework of quantum operations and the effects of decoherence. Quantum error correction (QEC) is examined through block codes and fault-tolerant operations, along with its integration with entanglement purification to address challenges of noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) devices. Physical platforms, including gate-based, continuousvariable and measurement-based models, are analyzed with an emphasis on error mitigation strategies to preserve coherence. We also discuss advancements in quantum sensing, particularly phase estimation, and evaluate communication protocols such as quantum key distribution (QKD) and teleportation in terms of fidelity, efficiency, and resilience. At the system level, components such as quantum networks, repeaters, and routers are reviewed with attention to scalability and security. Each section concludes with lessons learned, reflecting on challenges, trade-offs, and open questions. The survey culminates in outlining future directions in hybrid QEC-sensing integration, AI-enhanced error correction, and topological architectures, offering a forward-looking perspective on the co-evolution of quantum technologies. By bridging theory, protocols, physical systems, and architectures, this work charts a comprehensive roadmap toward secure, scalable, and high-fidelity quantum communication.
Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) has progressed from a theoretical cryptographic concept to an emerging secure communication infrastructure technology. While early work focused on protocol security and physical-layer feasibility, current research increasingly addresses scalable network deployment, hardware acceleration, and integration with classical communication systems. As QKD expands from point-to-point links to metropolitan, backbone, and hybrid satellite–terrestrial networks, new engineering challenges arise in topology design, entropy generation, real-time key distillation, and multi-vendor interoperability. This survey provides an infrastructure-oriented review of QKD networks, examining architectural models, quantum randomness as a root of trust, FPGA and system-on-chip (SoC) based acceleration techniques, and programmable control-plane integration. Key management system architectures and standardized interfaces are analyzed to highlight their roles in enabling scalable, interoperable deployments. The paper also synthesizes major standardization efforts and deployment initiatives shaping carrier-grade QKD infrastructures. Finally, open engineering challenges, including scalability, control-plane integration, certification harmonization, and hybridization with post-quantum cryptography, are identified, positioning QKD as a foundational component of next-generation secure communication systems.
ABSTRACT Quantum‐native communication systems are reshaping secure, programmable, and coherence‐aware networking beyond the classical paradigm. As intelligent physical infrastructures, ranging from unmanned aerial vehicle swarms to satellite Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) platforms, demand trust, synchronization, and ultra‐reliability, conventional protocol designs struggle to preserve entanglement and coherence while coordinating control logic across hybrid domains. This paper surveys layered protocol architectures and secure control frameworks designed for post‐6G and emerging 7G+ quantum‐enabled networks. Quantum‐classical hybrid denotes networks in which quantum links used for entanglement distribution or QKD interoperate with classical links and protocols within a unified communication fabric. We develop a taxonomy of the protocol stack, spanning the entanglement‐aware physical layer to the service‐level agreement (SLA)‐driven application layer, and covering representative technologies such as Q‐SDN (quantum software‐defined networking), quantum transmission Control Protocol, hybrid QKD and PQC (post‐quantum cryptography) integration, and intent‐driven orchestration through large language model agents. We revisit security using blockchain‐based trust anchors and fidelity‐aware metadata frameworks, and examine quantum synchronization and teleportation‐resilient session‐control mechanisms for preserving inter‐digital‐twin coherence. Through a broad review of architectural blueprints, protocol proposals, use cases, and simulation‐driven models, this paper positions quantum‐native protocol stacks as a foundation for secure, resilient, and intelligent communication systems.
The emergence of quantum networks promises revolutionary advancements in secure communication, computational power, and information processing. This paper provides insights into the essential components and architecture of quantum networks. We systematically examine each layer of the quantum protocol stack, from the physical layer responsible for qubit transmission and entanglement generation to the transport layer ensuring reliable qubit communication, up to the application layer enabling quantum key distribution and quantum computing applications. In this work, we introduce the E-QNet framework, an entanglement-assisted quantum network protocol stack designed to facilitate quantum communication. Key devices such as quantum transceivers, entanglement sources, quantum memories, quantum repeaters, and quantum routers are analyzed in the context of their specific roles and functionalities. We draw parallels with classical network architecture, highlighting both the unique challenges and novel solutions inherent in quantum networking. By elucidating the interplay between hardware devices and protocol layers, this article provides a comprehensive overview of the current state and future directions in quantum network design, offering valuable insights for researchers and engineers in the field. This work aims to contribute to the foundational understanding required for the development and implementation of robust quantum networks.
Abstract: This study advances a unifying systems perspective on quantum-safe network security by synthesizing recent progress in quantum cryptography with practical integration patterns across carrier-grade infrastructures. Concept analysis distinguishes the roles of quantum key distribution (QKD), device-independent variants, quantum authentication, and post-quantum cryptography (PQC) within zero-trust architectures. Building on this, a layered framework—spanning physical/entanglement resources, key management, crypto-agility, control plane orchestration, and policy/compliance—is articulated to support end-to-end, composable guarantees. The problem addressed is the realization of verifiable, quantum-resilient security under operational constraints involving latency, key-rate variability, and heterogeneous trust assumptions. Methodology combines a structured literature synthesis with formal composability mapping to universal composability principles, adversarial threat modeling for quantum-enabled attackers, and testbed/simulation evaluation of hybrid QKD–PQC pipelines across L2–L3 segments and 5G/6G backhaul scenarios. Key results indicate that (i) selective QKD deployment on high-value links coupled with PQC at endpoints enhances resilience while preserving crypto-agility; (ii) automated key-lifecycle orchestration reduces exposure windows; and (iii) device-independent assurances strengthen guarantees where trust relaxation is necessary. The impact is a deployment-ready reference architecture, measurable integration metrics, and guidance aligned with emerging standards for critical infrastructure and national networks. The implications extend to procurement, compliance, and roadmap planning for quantum-era network security. Keywords: quantum-safe cryptography, quantum key distribution (QKD), post-quantum cryptography (PQC), hybrid QKD–PQC, composable security, device-independent QKD, zero-trust networks, key management and orchestration, 5G/6G backhaul, network security architecture, standards and interoperability