Neutral atom arrays have recently emerged as a promising platform for fault-tolerant quantum computing.Based on these advances, including dynamically-reconfigurable connectivity and fast transversal operations, we present a low-overhead architecture that supports the layout and resource estimation of large-scale fault-tolerant quantum algorithms.Utilizing recent advances in fault tolerance with transversal gate operations, this architecture achieves a run time speed-up on the order of the code distance 𝑑, which we find directly translates to run time improvements of large-scale quantum algorithms.Our architecture consists of functional building blocks of key algorithmic subroutines, including magic state factories, quantum arithmetic units, and quantum look-up tables.These building blocks are implemented using efficient transversal operations, and we design space-time efficient versions of them that minimize interaction We acknowledge helpful discussions with M. Beverland, A.
Neutral atom arrays have recently emerged as a promising platform for fault-tolerant quantum computing.Based on these advances, including dynamically-reconfigurable connectivity and fast transversal operations, we present a low-overhead architecture that supports the layout and resource estimation of large-scale fault-tolerant quantum algorithms.Utilizing recent advances in fault tolerance with transversal gate operations, this architecture achieves a run time speed-up on the order of the code distance 𝑑, which we find directly translates to run time improvements of large-scale quantum algorithms.Our architecture consists of functional building blocks of key algorithmic subroutines, including magic state factories, quantum arithmetic units, and quantum look-up tables.These building blocks are implemented using efficient transversal operations, and we design space-time efficient versions of them that minimize interaction We acknowledge helpful discussions with M. Beverland, A.
Recent advancements in neutral atom platforms have enabled exploration of early fault-tolerant (FT) architectures for applications with quantum advantage, such as quantum dynamics simulations. An efficient fault-tolerant architecture has both spatially efficient quantum error correction codes (low qubit overhead), and efficient methodologies (transversal based gates, extractor based gates, etc.) for logical computation, to minimize overall execution time. Achieving the right balance between space and time can be critical for enabling early FT demonstrations of quantum advantage.
In this work, we identify bottlenecks in existing spatially efficient schemes, which tend to be very serial, and do not take advantage of unutilized space. We introduce a teleportation-based scheme that leverages the reconfigurable connectivity of neutral atoms to parallelize logical operations. Our approach achieves up to \textbf{∼3× speedup} over extractor architectures at no extra space cost and achieves the best spacetime performance among other viable architectures before accounting for external \textit{resource-states}. To rigorously evaluate performance, we construct explicit quantum advantage benchmarks and \textit{simulate} compilation to a fault-tolerant instruction set, including low-level gate scheduling and shuttling patterns, and resource-state nondeterminism. We find that our speedups still apply and report exact space-time cost along with success probabilities, identifying architectures capable of achieving quantum advantage \textbf{with as little as 11,495 atoms and a runtime of ∼15 hours}.
Resource estimation is a significant challenge in evaluating fault tolerant quantum computers. Existing approaches often rely on either fixed architectural assumptions or coarse analytical models that fail to capture the interaction between hardware constraints and circuit compilation. This challenge is particularly acute for neutral atom quantum computers, where architectural features such as atom movement, measurement zones, and multi-species arrays introduce a broad design space for implementing fault tolerant computation. Addressing the need for a tighter feedback loop between hardware design and practical application development, we present a compilation-driven framework for quantum resource estimation that translates arbitrary quantum circuits into logical primitive operations with known physical resource costs. This framework allows for easily configurable hardware assumptions that enable rapid comparison of different architectural design choices. We apply our approach to two early fault tolerant quantum simulation and optimization workloads, assuming the use of the surface code, revealing several architectural trends. While the production of magic states continues to be the dominant source of overhead for these benchmarks, access to movement can save time on cultivation and important transversal gates. As problem size grows, routing and qubit movement become dominant bottlenecks, highlighting the need for movement-aware compiler optimizations and frugal routing strategies. Finally, our results suggest that neutral atom architectures combining dual-species arrays with controlled qubit movement offer a promising path toward near-term advantage on fault tolerant devices.
Quantum computing experiments have made remarkable progress in demonstrating key components of error-corrected quantum computing, a prerequisite for scalable quantum computation. While we anticipate the near-term arrival of early fault-tolerant quantum hardware capable of a million reliable quantum operations, the cost of preparing low-noise “magic resource states,” which are necessary for performing universal quantum computation, presents a formidable challenge. The recently proposed partially fault-tolerant architecture based on a space-time efficient analog rotation (STAR) approach attempts to address this challenge by using postselection to prepare low-noise, arbitrary small-angle magic states. Its proposed physical implementation, however, assumes fixed qubit connectivity, resulting in implementation costs closer to leading fully fault-tolerant approaches. In this work, we propose the transversal STAR architecture and co-design it with neutral-atom quantum hardware, deriving explicit and significant savings in logical layout, time, and space overhead. Through detailed circuit-level simulations, we derive the logical noise model for surface-code-based transversal STAR gadgets and verify their composability. At its limit, the transversal STAR architecture with neutral atoms can efficiently simulate local Hamiltonians with a total simulation volume exceeding 600, defined as the product of the number of logical qubits and Hamiltonian evolution timescales. Achieving this limit would require approximately 10 000 physical qubits at a physical error rate of 10 − 3 . This is equivalent to a fully fault-tolerant computation requiring over 10 6 – 10 7 T gates and a potential > 100 × saving on space-time volume for equivalent simulation over current, state-of-the-art protocols. Finally, we extend the transversal STAR architecture to high-rate quantum low-density parity-check codes, demonstrating how a limited set of highly parallel transversal Clifford gates and generalized small-angle magic injection can be utilized for effective quantum simulation. We anticipate that the co-designed transversal STAR architecture could substantially reduce the physical resources necessary for early fault-tolerant quantum simulation at the megaquop scale.
Neutral-atom arrays are a leading qubit technology for large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computing (FTQC). A dominant error source on this platform is qubit loss, which accrues with every operation and movement. The presence of loss undermines the promises of existing architectural work. Standard error correction targets stochastic Pauli errors and cannot correct loss, so most FTQC performance analyses are not directly compatible with it. Moreover, compilation and routing decisions, which strongly affect overall loss, are typically optimized against Pauli-error cost models and often remain loss-agnostic, potentially increasing exposure to the loss channel.
In this work, we comprehensively model the effect of qubit loss on neutral-atom FTQC and develop a loss-tolerant transversal-gate architecture. We treat loss not as a predetermined error parameter but as a dynamic budget spent across a whole program, allowing us to control it by co-designing layout, compilation, and decoding. We target a physical implementation with no separate storage and entangling zones, eliminating the repeated SLM-AOD handoffs and long-distance shuttling that dominate loss in other layouts. We develop compiler optimizations that maximize gate parallelism while respecting the RF tone budget and AOD bandwidth constraints. Our work couples these with a loss-aware, delayed-erasure decoder and an end-to-end loss-aware magic state cultivation protocol. Overall, we improve accumulated loss per syndrome-extraction round by up to 2.15X against a zoned baseline and reduce logical error rates by over two orders of magnitude versus current architectures. Our framework also informs concrete device targets such as continuous reloading rates, AOD counts, and shuttling trajectory choices. We expect these insights to matter for system architects as neutral-atom hardware scales.
Quantum computers have the potential to perform computational tasks beyond the reach of classical machines. A prominent example is Shor's algorithm for integer factorization and discrete logarithms, which is of both fundamental importance and practical relevance to cryptography. However, due to the high overhead of quantum error correction, optimized resource estimates for cryptographically relevant instances of Shor's algorithm require millions of physical qubits. Here, by leveraging advances in high-rate quantum error-correcting codes, efficient logical instruction sets, and circuit design, we show that Shor's algorithm can be executed at cryptographically relevant scales with as few as 10,000 reconfigurable atomic qubits. Increasing the number of physical qubits improves time efficiency by enabling greater parallelism; under plausible assumptions, the runtime for discrete logarithms on the P-256 elliptic curve could be just a few days for a system with 26,000 physical qubits, while the runtime for factoring RSA-2048 integers is one to two orders of magnitude longer. Recent neutral-atom experiments have demonstrated universal fault-tolerant operations below the error-correction threshold, computation on arrays of hundreds of qubits, and trapping arrays with more than 6,000 highly coherent qubits. Although substantial engineering challenges remain, our theoretical analysis indicates that an appropriately designed neutral-atom architecture could support quantum computation at cryptographically relevant scales. More broadly, these results highlight the capability of neutral atoms for fault-tolerant quantum computing with wide-ranging scientific and technological applications.
Efficient quantum error correction and fault-tolerant quantum computing require scalable, high-fidelity long-range connectivity. In neutral-atom quantum computers, this is commonly achieved through atom transport, but shuttling introduces latency and motional heating that worsen with system size. Here, we introduce a neutral-atom architecture based on static atomic buses, in which auxiliary mediator atoms enable long-range entangling operations without qubit transport. The architecture naturally supports long-range stabilizer measurements in high-rate LDPC codes and transversal logical gates between neighboring surface-code patches, enabling a modular framework for efficient logical memories, Clifford computation, and magic-state distillation. To realize these capabilities, we co-design optimal-control protocols for bus-mediated controlled-Z gates that incorporate both microscopic neutral-atom dynamics and architectural constraints. We obtain smooth bus-mediated gates with fidelities approaching 99.9% and durations of a few hundred nanoseconds by combining time-optimal control with interaction-flatness and robustness constraints. Large-scale simulations of quantum error correction and logical entangling operations between neighboring surface-code patches predict more than an order-of-magnitude improvement in logical error rates compared with atom-shuttling architectures under realistic noise. The architecture achieves logical gate times of approximately 100 us and quantum-error-correction cycle times of about 1 ms for code distances d<12. These results establish static atomic buses as a practical alternative to atom shuttling for scalable fault-tolerant neutral-atom quantum computing.