The rapid development of quantum computers threatens traditional cryptographic schemes, prompting the need for Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC). Although the NIST standardization process has accelerated the development of such algorithms, their application in resource-constrained environments such as embedded systems remains a challenge. Automotive systems relying on the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus for communication are particularly vulnerable due to their limited computational capabilities, high traffic, and need for real-time response. These constraints raise concerns about the feasibility of implementing PQC in automotive environments, where legacy hardware and bit rate limitations must also be considered.In this paper, we introduce PQ-CAN, a modular framework for simulating the performance and overhead of PQC algorithms in embedded systems. We consider the automotive domain as our case study, testing a variety of PQC schemes under different scenarios. Our simulation enables the adjustment of embedded system computational capabilities and CAN bus bit rate constraints. We also provide insights into the trade-offs involved by analyzing each algorithm’s security level and overhead for key encapsulation and digital signature. By evaluating the performance of these algorithms, we provide insights into their feasibility and identify the strengths and limitations of PQC in securing automotive communications in the post-quantum era.
The rapid development of quantum computers threatens traditional cryptographic schemes, prompting the need for Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC). Although the NIST standardization process has accelerated the development of such algorithms, their application in resource-constrained environments such as embedded systems remains a challenge. Automotive systems relying on the Controller Area Network (CAN) bus for communication are particularly vulnerable due to their limited computational capabilities, high traffic, and need for real-time response. These constraints raise concerns about the feasibility of implementing PQC in automotive environments, where legacy hardware and bit rate limitations must also be considered.In this paper, we introduce PQ-CAN, a modular framework for simulating the performance and overhead of PQC algorithms in embedded systems. We consider the automotive domain as our case study, testing a variety of PQC schemes under different scenarios. Our simulation enables the adjustment of embedded system computational capabilities and CAN bus bit rate constraints. We also provide insights into the trade-offs involved by analyzing each algorithm’s security level and overhead for key encapsulation and digital signature. By evaluating the performance of these algorithms, we provide insights into their feasibility and identify the strengths and limitations of PQC in securing automotive communications in the post-quantum era.
The growth of quantum computing reveals a series of significant threats to cryptographic systems known today, such as RSA, ECC, and Diffie-Hellman, which are extremely important for Internet security, but are threatened by the increase in possible quantum attacks. The area of public and private key cryptography is vast. Therefore, this article addresses post-quantum cryptography (PQC) algorithms and the challenges of implementing them in Internet of Things (IoT) devices, given the difficulty of application due to restricted resources, such as RAM and clock speed . To this end, we will discuss the need for standardization of algorithms considering low-resource IoT devices, prioritizing RAM over ROM, meeting the needs of low-memory devices, which are lighter. The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has validated four cryptographic systems that are secure against quantum attacks. We analyze the implications of these systems on the infrastructure of current networks and will compare in detail these algorithms and their respective strengths, weaknesses, and trade-offs. We evaluate the feasibility of post-quantum encryption (PQC) algorithms in resource-constrained IoT devices using the ESP-WROOM-32 microcontroller. Three cryptographic schemes were implemented and compared.
The transition to post-quantum cryptography (PQC) marks a pivotal shift in ensuring digital security, prompted by the potential of quantum computers to compromise classical systems such as Rivest-Shamir-Adlema and elliptic-curve cryptography. In response, NIST has standardized three foundational PQC algorithms: Module-lattice-based Key-encapsulation Mechanism for key establishment; Module-lattice-based Digital Signature, and Stateless Hash-based Digital Signature algorithms for digital signatures. Meanwhile, FALCON and Hamming Quasi-cyclic (HQC) schemes, both selected as finalists, are expected to join the standards soon. This paper presents a comprehensive survey of these NIST-selected PQC standards, with a dual focus on software implementations and hardware architecture designs. We analyze their mathematical frameworks, distinctive features, and optimization strategies related to performance, security, and resource efficiency. The software review examines algorithmic complexity, memory usage, and programming considerations, while the hardware review discusses FPGA and ASIC implementations, emphasizing modular arithmetic, polynomial operations, and resource efficiency challenges. A comparative analysis highlights the strengths and trade-offs of each algorithm, offering insights into their applicability across various platforms-from resource-constrained internet of things devices to high-performance computing environments. This study provides a foundational understanding of NIST’s selected PQC standards and their practical deployment in securing the post-quantum era.
The advent of quantum computers makes asymmetric cryptographic algorithms insecure and vulnerable. A promising solution to ensure the continued security attributes of confidentiality, integrity, and availability is the use of Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) algorithms. The adoption of quantum-safe algorithms takes place at a vastly different pace in different industries. In some industries, adoption processes are slow due to the required adaptation of regulations and standards. At the same time, long-lived products with non-PQC algorithms are more likely to become insecure during their lifetime. Vehicles are a prime example of long-lived products where the adoption of PQC proceeds slowly. When quantum computers are able to break relevant key lengths of asymmetric cryptography and, thus, render current vehicle systems insecure, vehicles that are developed and produced today will most likely remain in use. In this work, we provide a structured and comprehensive overview of the current migration state of PQC algorithms in the automotive area. We address use cases involving asymmetric cryptography in the automotive context that face the challenge of adapting PQC, such as internal vehicle networks, manufacturer-specific communication, and vehicle-to-everything communication. In addition, we review the standards concerning vehicle security and their relevance to PQC. Finally, we identify and discuss open research challenges regarding the adoption of PQC in the automotive domain and further steps towards quantum-safe vehicles.
Post-quantum cryptography (PQC) is a critical area of research aimed at addressing the threat quantum computing poses to traditional cryptographic systems. It focuses on evaluating the efficiency, security, and practical performance of PQC algorithms through experimental analysis. This research supports the development of optimized cryptographic solutions, contributes to standardization efforts, and ensures secure and efficient implementations for a wide range of applications. Despite progress in PQC, gaps still exist in practical performance evaluations, particularly in resource-constrained environments. There is a lack of standardized comparisons, hindering the selection of suitable algorithms for specific use cases like IoT and cloud systems. Furthermore, research on scalability, integration challenges, and the trade-offs between security and efficiency remains insufficient. The methodology involves creating a comprehensive framework to evaluate various PQC algorithms, including lattice-based (e.g., Kyber, Dilithium), code-based (e.g., McEliece), and hash-based (e.g., SPHINCS+). These algorithms will be tested in diverse environments, from resource-constrained devices to high-performance infrastructures such as cloud platforms. Key metrics such as encryption/decryption speed, key sizes, memory usage, and computational efficiency will be measured, focusing on the trade-offs between security, efficiency, and scalability. The results will be benchmarked against standardized metrics to provide a clear understanding of each algorithm's suitability for real-world deployment. The findings indicate that lattice-based algorithms like Kyber offer a strong balance between security and efficiency but require considerable computational resources. Code-based algorithms like McEliece are highly secure but come with large key sizes and slower speeds. Hash-based schemes like SPHINCS+ provide strong security but are computationally expensive, making them less suitable for resource-limited systems. The highlights the importance of optimizing PQC algorithms according to specific application requirements, where the choice of algorithm must balance security, efficiency, and resource constraints, with continuous optimization needed to address evolving real-world demands.
The expansion of Internet of Things (IoT) ecosystems has created a high demand for secure cryptographic solutions, even in a future with quantum computing capabilities. Traditional mappings, such as RSA or Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), are expected to be broken by Shor's algorithm, driving the realization of post-quantum cryptography (PQC). This work presents a simulative and prototypical framework for assessing PQC integration in IoT communication. With the liboqs library and NS-3 network simulator, along with the Python scripting language, we implement both NIST-standardized algorithms, such as Dilithium (for signatures) and Kyber (for key encapsulation), as well as the classical RSA and ECC baselines. IoT networks of 50-500 virtual nodes are simulated based on IEEE 802.15.4/6LoWPAN with RPL routing. Performance attributes, including encryption/decryption time, key length, packet delivery ratio, latency, and energy consumption, are collected and evaluated. Preliminary results indicate that PQC incurs additional handshake and key overhead, but is relatively practical, with an average overhead of15−25msper processed secure transaction. The effort provides a replicable testbed, showcasing what we consider the best and worst PQC has to offer for resource-constrained IoT. Targeted at master's students and researchers, this book provides an applied approach to investigate quantum-resilient security in IoT. It encourages future expansion to hardware-in-the-loop validation on embedded devices.
Public key cryptography plays a pivotal role in maintaining digital security and privacy, with its foundations built on the hardness of certain mathematical problems. However, the emergence of quantum computing threatens the security of current cryptographic systems, making the adoption of post-quantum cryptography (PQC) an urgent necessity. Digital signature schemes are essential components in secure communications, providing authentication, non-repudiation, and data integrity. This paper examines the state of post-quantum digital signature schemes across various cryptographic approaches, including lattice-based, code-based, multivariate polynomial-based, hash-based, symmetric-key-based, and isogeny-based systems, alongside advancements in Multi-Party Computation in the Head (MPC-in-the-head) schemes. The paper then explores application-specific signatures such as blind, undeniable, threshold, chameleon, aggregate, and ring signatures, explaining their main use cases and the existing post-quantum cryptographic classifications that support these constructions individually. Software implementations of selected prominent PQC digital signature schemes were carried out, and their performance was systematically analysed using metrics such as bandwidth consumption, latency, and computational efficiency. These results provide key observations regarding the suitability of different schemes for both resource-constrained and high-performance environments. Subsequently, a detailed literature review of implementations on embedded and hardware platforms is presented, focusing on ARM-based devices and FPGA accelerators to evaluate deployment feasibility beyond general-purpose processors. Based on the software and implementation-level findings, a comparative analysis across software, embedded, and hardware platforms is conducted to highlight architectural influences on performance, scalability, and practicality. Furthermore the cryptanalytic attacks on post-quantum digital signature schemes across various PQC classifications are examined in this paper, taking into account both classical and quantum adversarial models. To evaluate realistic security constraints, implementation-oriented vulnerabilities such as side-channel and fault-based attacks are also examined. In addition, the applicability of post-quantum digital signature schemes within TLS, IoT, and related practical deployment scenarios is analysed. The study also discusses possible directions for further investigation, focusing on the requirement for effective and expandable PQC systems that can satisfy changing cybersecurity requirements. In order to protect sensitive data in the digital era, this study emphasizes the need for implementing quantum-secure systems by fusing theoretical understandings with real-world applications.