We present a graduate course on ideal measurements, analyzed as dynamical processes of interaction between the tested system S and an apparatus A, described by quantum statistical mechanics. The apparatus A = M + B involves a macroscopic measuring device M and a bath B. The requirements for ideality of the measurement allow us to specify the Hamiltonian of the isolated compound system S + M + B . The resulting dynamical equations may be solved for simple models. Conservation laws are shown to entail two independent relaxation mechanisms: truncation and registration. Approximations, justified by the large size of M and of B, are needed. The final density matrix 𝒟 ^ ( t f ) of S + A has an equilibrium form. It describes globally the outcome of a large set of runs of the measurement. The measurement problem, i.e., extracting physical properties of individual runs from 𝒟 ^ ( t f ), then arises due to the ambiguity of its splitting into parts associated with subsets of runs. To deal with this ambiguity, we postulate that each run ends up with a distinct pointer value A i of the macroscopic M. This is compatible with the principles of quantum mechanics. Born’s rule then arises from the conservation law for the tested observable; it expresses the frequency of occurrence of the final indications A i of M in terms of the initial state of S. Von Neumann’s reduction amounts to updating of information due to selection of A i . We advocate the terms q -probabilities and q -correlations when analyzing measurements of non-commuting observables. These ideas may be adapted to different types of courses.
We present a graduate course on ideal measurements, analyzed as dynamical processes of interaction between the tested system S and an apparatus A, described by quantum statistical mechanics. The apparatus A = M + B involves a macroscopic measuring device M and a bath B. The requirements for ideality of the measurement allow us to specify the Hamiltonian of the isolated compound system S + M + B . The resulting dynamical equations may be solved for simple models. Conservation laws are shown to entail two independent relaxation mechanisms: truncation and registration. Approximations, justified by the large size of M and of B, are needed. The final density matrix 𝒟 ^ ( t f ) of S + A has an equilibrium form. It describes globally the outcome of a large set of runs of the measurement. The measurement problem, i.e., extracting physical properties of individual runs from 𝒟 ^ ( t f ), then arises due to the ambiguity of its splitting into parts associated with subsets of runs. To deal with this ambiguity, we postulate that each run ends up with a distinct pointer value A i of the macroscopic M. This is compatible with the principles of quantum mechanics. Born’s rule then arises from the conservation law for the tested observable; it expresses the frequency of occurrence of the final indications A i of M in terms of the initial state of S. Von Neumann’s reduction amounts to updating of information due to selection of A i . We advocate the terms q -probabilities and q -correlations when analyzing measurements of non-commuting observables. These ideas may be adapted to different types of courses.
In textbooks, ideal quantum measurements are described in terms of the tested system only by the collapse postulate and Born's rule. This level of description offers a rather flexible position for the interpretation of quantum mechanics. Here we analyse an ideal measurement as a process of interaction between the tested system S and an apparatus A, so as to derive the properties postulated in textbooks. We thus consider within standard quantum mechanics the measurement of a quantum spin component ŝz by an apparatus A, being a magnet coupled to a bath. We first consider the evolution of the density operator of S + A describing a large set of runs of the measurement process. The approach describes the disappearance of the off-diagonal terms ("truncation") of the density matrix as a physical effect due to A, while the registration of the outcome has classical features due to the large size of the pointer variable, the magnetization. A quantum ambiguity implies that the density matrix at the final time can be decomposed on many bases, not only the one of the measurement. This quantum oddity prevents to connect individual outcomes to measurements, a difficulty known as the "measurement problem". It is shown that it is circumvented by the apparatus as well, since the evolution in a small time interval erases all decompositions, except the one on the measurement basis. Once one can derive the outcome of individual events from quantum theory, the so-called collapse of the wavefunction or the reduction of the state appears as the result of a selection of runs among the original large set. Hence nothing more than standard quantum mechanics is needed to explain features of measurements. The employed statistical formulation is advocated for the teaching of quantum theory.
The measurement of a spin-$\half$ is modeled by coupling it to an apparatus, that consists of an Ising magnetic dot coupled to a phonon bath. Features of quantum measurements are derived from the dynamical solution of the measurement, regarded as a process of quantum statistical mechanics. Schrödinger cat terms involving both the system and the apparatus, die out very quickly, while the registration is a process taking the apparatus from its initially metastable state to one of its stable final states. The occurrence of Born probabilities can be inferred at the macroscopic level, by looking at the pointer alone. Apparent non-unitary behavior of the measurement process is explained by the arisal of small many particle correlations, that characterize relaxation.
This chapter presents the measurement problem from the point of view of the thermal interpretation of quantum physics. Everything physicists measure is measured in a thermal environment, for which statistical thermodynamics is relevant. The thermal interpretation agrees with how one interprets measurements in thermodynamics, the macroscopic part of quantum physics, derived via statistical mechanics. By its very construction, the thermal interpretation naturally matches the classical properties of our quantum world: The thermal interpretation assigns states-and a realistic interpretation for them-to individual quantum systems, in a way that large quantum systems are naturally described by classical observables. Since measurement devices are large quantum systems, this is the key to solving the measurement problem. We discuss the role played by macroscopic systems and the weak law of large numbers in getting readings with small uncertainty. Since quantum physics makes many deterministic predictions, for example regarding observed spectra, but also assertions about probabilities, we distinguish deterministic and statistical measurements. To clarify the meaning of the concept of measurement, we postulate (in Section 11.1) a measurement principle that defines what it means in the thermal interpretation to measure a quantity with a specified uncertainty. This turns the measurement problem from a philosophical riddle into a scientific problem in the domain of quantum statistical mechanics, namely how the quantum dynamics correlates macroscopic readings from an instrument with properties of the state of a measured microscopic system. The essence of scientific practice is the reproducibility of measurements, discussed in Section 11.2. Unlike in traditional interpretations, single, nonreproducible observations do not count as measurements, since this would violate the reproducibility of measurements-the essence of scientific practice. As a consequence, the measurement of a Hermitian quantity A is regarded as giving an uncertain value approximating the q-expectation {A} rather than (as tradition wanted to have it) as an exact revelation of an eigenvalue of A. This difference is most conspicuous in the interpretation of single discrete microscopic events. Except in very special circumstances, these are not reproducible. Thus, they have no scientific value in themselves and do not constitute measurement results. Scientific value is, however, in ensembles of such observations, which result in approximate measurements of q-probabilities and q-expectations. Sections 11.3 and 11.4 distinguish deterministic and statistical measurements, depending on whether a single observation is reproducible, and discuss the role played by macroscopic systems and the weak law of large numbers in getting readings with small uncertainty. How to measure the q-probabilities of events, described in terms of POVMs, is discussed in Section 11.5. Section 11.6 poses the measurement problem as a problem of the statistical mechanics of measurement devices, and discuss recent work by Allahverdyan, Balian, and Nieuwenhuizen on its resolution. Section 11.7 discusses the problem how, in the thermal interpretation, discrete events can arise, although qexpectations are by their very nature continuous. This is resolved by pointing to work by Breuer and Petruccione on piecewise deterministic processes (PDP). Section 11.8 sheds additional light on the origin of discrete events by an analysis of the role dissipative bistability plays in obtaining discreteness in classical physics.
The quantum measurement problem, i.e., the apparent conflict between unitary quantum evolution and non-unitary, stochastic wave-function collapse, remains unresolved a century after the formulation of quantum mechanics. We first review the standard picture, from the Copenhagen prescription with its Heisenberg cut, through von Neumann's movable cut, to environment-induced decoherence, which explains the emergence of stable classical records but still presupposes the Born rule and therefore cannot by itself replace the measurement postulates. We then connect this problem to the Maximum Entropy Principle in two complementary ways. First, decoherence drives the measurement apparatus toward the least biased state compatible with the dynamically protected pointer distribution, so that the emergent collapse may be viewed as a thermodynamic relaxation toward constrained maximum entropy. Second, we propose a Timeless Histories formulation of quantum mechanics in which the primitive objects are ordered sequences of events rather than evolving wave functions. Their conditional probabilities are assigned, relative to specified refinements, by a single Born-Boltzmann rule that combines the quadratic structure of Born's rule with Boltzmann's counting of equally probable microstates. The textbook form of Born's rule, the projection postulate, density operators, and wave functions are then recovered as derived informational constructs, while collapse becomes Bayesian conditioning on recorded events. Time and space enter only subsequently through unitary translation symmetry. Since the probability rule is postulated without reference to any physical collapse or classical observer, the usual circularity of the decoherence program is avoided. Decoherence can then be invoked to explain the stability and approximate additivity of macroscopic records, i.e., the emergence of classicality.
Standard quantum mechanics relies on two distinct dynamical principles: unitary evolution and collapse. A mathematically self-contained variational framework is presented that replaces this dualism with a single principle, in which nonrelativistic Schrödinger dynamics are not postulated but emerge as an admissible optimality condition of a primal-dual boundary-value problem. By expressing the state in terms of hydrodynamic variables (ρ,j) subject to a continuity constraint, it is shown that Fisher-information regularization yields the linear Schrödinger equation within the admissible single-valued variational class. Rather than evolving an initial state forward in time, the dynamics arise from minimizing a global action that connects the initial and final boundary constraints, with the selected solution corresponding to a specific hydrodynamic flow within an ensemble of admissible histories. A von Neumann pointer model illustrates how Born-rule statistics for recorded outcomes arise without introducing a separate collapse law. Within this formulation, quantum uncertainty is interpreted as effective randomness over boundary-compatible histories rather than as a fundamental stochastic postulate. The resulting framework provides a nonrelativistic proof of concept for how a single time-symmetric variational reformulation can recover key features of quantum theory.
Abstract In rough terms, the quantum measurement problem is the problem of explaining how, when a system in a superposition state is measured, the pointer observable of the measuring apparatus is always found in a definite value. Although quantum mechanics involves several interpretative challenges, the measurement problem has been the main focus of the interest of physicists and philosophers working on the foundations of the theory: most interpretations were designed specifically to solve it. In this chapter, it is shown that the MHI offers a solution to the measurement problem for both ideal and non-ideal measurements, and that, in the non-ideal case, the interpretation distinguishes between reliable and non-reliable measurements. I have also explained how the MHI accounts for consecutive measurements. Finally, it is emphasized that the MHI approach provides a new, more physical understanding of the concept of quantum measurement.